Martin Jacques - When China Rules the World

[745]Nicholas Ostler, Empires of the Word (London: HarperCollins, 2005), pp. 116-73, especially pp. 116-17, 156-7.

[746]Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , p. 43.

[747]Ibid., p. 46.

[748]Chen Kuan-Hsing, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’ (revised version, 2009, available at www.inter-asia.org /khchen/online/Epilogue.pdf; to be published in Towards De-Imperialization — Asia as Method , Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, forthcoming); and Leo K. Shin, The Making of the Chinese State: Ethnicity and Expansion on the Ming Borderlands (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 4–5.

[749]Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , pp. 22, 62-3, 253-4.

[750]Dikötter, introduction, pp. 1, 5.

[751]M. Dujon Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas (Milton Keynes: Author-House, 2007), p. 94.

[752]Martin Jacques, ‘Global Hierarchy of Race’, Guardian , 20 September 2003.

[753]Dikötter, introduction, p. 3.

[754]Ibid., p. 2.

[755]Kai-wing Chow, ‘Imagining Boundaries of Blood: Zhang Binglin and the Invention of the Han “Race” in Modern China’, in Dikötter, ed., The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan , p. 48; also p. 44.

[756]Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, pp. 79–80; Lucian W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), pp. 80–81, 196, 329.

[757]Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (London: Hurst and Company, 1992), p. 32; Allen Chan, ‘The Grand Illusion: The Long History of Multiculturalism in an Era of Invented Indigenisation’, p. 6, unpublished paper for Swedish-NUS conference, ‘Asia-Europe and Global Processes’, Singapore, 14–16 March 2001. It is easier for an ethnic Chinese born in Malaysia or Canada to get Hong Kong citizenship than it is for a Hong Kong-born person of Indian or Philippine background; Philip Bowring, ‘China and Its Minorities’, International Herald Tribune , 3 March 2008.

[758]Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel , pp. 331-2; and Lovell, The Great Wall , pp. 35, 108.

[759]John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), pp. 278, 281.

[760]Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , p. 9.

[761]Ibid., pp. 1, 3–4; Fairbank, The Chinese World Order , pp. 27-8; Lovell, The Great Wall , p. 35; Kuan-Hsing Chen, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’; and Wade, ‘Some Topoi’, p. 144.

[762]Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , p. 6.

[763]Ibid., p. 29; Fairbank, The Chinese World Order , pp. 21, 281.

[764]Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , pp. 10–13.

[765]Ibid., p. 11.

[766]Ibid., pp. 12–13.

[767]Ibid., p. 25.

[768]Christian Tyler, Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang (London: John Murray, 2003), pp. 56–87, 269.

[769]Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , pp. 38–52, 129.

[770]Ibid., pp. 55-6, 68-9.

[771]Quoted in ibid., p. 158.

[772]Ibid., p. 149.

[773]Quoted in Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas , p. 39.

[774]Quoted in Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , p. 125.

[775]Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , pp. 22, 66–70,172.

[776]Ibid., pp. 172, 176-95.

[777]Colin Mackerras, ‘What is China? Who is Chinese? Han-minority Relations, Legitimacy, and the State’, in Peter Hays Gries and Stanley Rosen, eds, State and Society in 21st-Century China (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), pp. 216- 17.

[778]‘Voice of an Empire, All But Extinct’, International Herald Tribune , 17–18 March 2007.

[779]Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995), pp. 29–32.

[780]Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , pp. 180-84.

[781]John Gittings, The Changing Face of China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 313; International Herald Tribune , 6–7 October 2001.

[782]Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , pp. 204-5; Mackerras, ‘What is China?’, pp. 224-7; and Christopher R. Hughes, Chinese Nationalism in the Global Era (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 123-4. Also Geoff Dyer and Jamil Anderlini, ‘Distant Thunder: Separatism Stirs on China ’s Forgotten Frontier’, Financial Times , 17 August 2008.

[783]Harrell, Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers , p. 23.

[784]Ibid., p. 25.

[785]Ibid., pp. 25-7; Zhao, Nation-State by Construction , pp. 202-8. Also, ‘ China: Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions’, Human Rights in China , Minority Rights Group International, 2007.

[786]Dikötter, ‘Racial Discourse in China ’, pp. 25-6; Jenner, ‘Race and History in China ’, pp. 70, 73-6.

[787]For a very sensitive view of Tibetan culture, and the nature of Chinese attitudes, see Sun Shuyun, A Year in Tibet: A Voyage of Discovery (London: HarperPress, 2008), for example, pp. 2–3, 37-8. Also, Geoff Dyer, ‘The Great Brawl of China ’, Financial Times , 11 July 2008.

[788]Jim Yardley, ‘After the Fury in Tibet, Firm Hand Trembles’, International Herald Tribune , 18 March 2008.

[789]Howard W. French, ‘Again, Beijing Cues Up Its Propaganda Machine’, International Herald Tribune , 4 April 2008.

[790]Jim Yardley and Somini Sengupta, ‘ Beijing Blames the Dalai Lama’, International Herald Tribune , 19 March 2008.

[791]Howard W. French, ‘Side By Side in China, While Still Worlds Apart’, International Herald Tribune , 20 March 2008.

[792]Quoted in ibid.

[793]Sun Shuyun, A Year in Tibet , p. 66.

[794]Many have remarked on what they see as the racism of Chinese societies and communities. Howard Gardner, the American educationalist, writes: ‘As a group, the Chinese tend to be ethnocentric, xenophobic and racist. Most people prefer to be with their own kind… but few have come to feel as strongly about this separatism over the millennia as the Han’ ( To Open Minds (New York: Basic Books, 1989), p. 130). Colin Mackerras suggests: ‘Many Chinese care little for the minorities, let alone their cultures, and tend to look down on them’ (‘What is China?’, p. 221). Lucian Pye writes: ‘The most pervasive underlying Chinese emotion is a profound, unquestioned, generally unshakeable identification with historical greatness… This is all so-evident that they are hardly aware when they are being superior to others’ ( The Spirit of Chinese Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harward University Press, 1992), p. 50). Chen Kuan-Hsing warns: ‘Han Chinese racism will be a regional, if not global, problem’ (‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’).

[795]www.malaysiakini.com/letters/33156 also 33115. Other discussions include: http://shanghai.asiaxpat.com/forums/speakerscorner/threads/65529.asp; http: www.chinahistoryforum.com/index.php?s=982bfbe08a75508b7a9de 815588c6f12&showtopic=9760&st=15&p=4788117entry4788117

[796]Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas , pp. 7, 94.

[797]Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, p. 75.

[798]Chen, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’. There is little difference between racial attitudes in China and Taiwan; Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas , pp. 4, 42-3.

[799]For example, Barry Sautman and Ellen Kneehans, ‘The Politics of Racial Discrimination in Hong Kong’, Maryland Series in Contemporary Asian Studies , 2 (2000); and Kelley Loper, ‘Cultivating a Multicultural Society and Combating Racial Discrimination in Hong Kong ’, Civic Exchange , August 2001.