Martin Jacques - When China Rules the World

[689]Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic? , pp. 283-90, 302-8.

[690]Ibid., pp. 308-17.

[691]Mark Leonard, What Does China Think? (London: Fourth Estate, 2008), p. 48.

[692]Interview with Yu Zengke, Beijing, 22 May 2006.

[693]Mark Leonard, What Does China Think? , pp. 64-6, 74-5.

[694]Howell, Governance in China , pp. 227-8.

[695]Nolan, China at the Crossroads , pp. 72, 77.

[696]John Fitzgerald, Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), p. 85. These terms and others such as ‘sovereignty’ and ‘ethnicity’ were often Western imports. Shi Anbin, ‘Mediating Chinese-ness’, p. 2, in Reid and Zheng, Negotiating Asymmetry .

[697]Interview with Huang Ping, Beijing, 10 December 2005.

[698]Callahan, Contingent States , p. xxi.

[699]Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation: America and the World 1600 - 1898 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006), pp. 15–17, 130-33,137, 250-51.

[700]Martin Jacques, ‘Strength in Numbers’, Guardian , 23 October 2004.

[701]Interview with Yu Yongding, Singapore, 3 March 2006.

[702]Kagan, Dangerous Nation , Chapters 1–4.

[703]David C. Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong: The Need for New Analytical Frameworks’, International Security , 27: 4 (Spring 2003), p. 84.

[704]William A. Callahan, Contingent States: Greater China and Transnational Relations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), pp. 2, 26.

[705]Eric Hobsbawm, ‘ America ’s Neo-Conservative World Supremacists Will Fail’, Guardian , 25 June 2005.

[706]Bob Herbert in International Herald Tribune , 2 March 2007, from David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

[707]For a recognition of the importance of race and ethnicity in the formulation of foreign policy, see Thomas J. Christensen, Alastair Iain Johnston and Robert S. Ross, ‘Conclusions and Future Directions’, in Alastair Iain Johnston and Robert S. Ross, eds, New Directions in the Study of China’s Foreign Policy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006), pp. 410-11.

[708]Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years (London: Vintage, 1998), p. 324; Julia Lovell, The Great Wall: China Against the World 1000 BC - AD 2000 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006), p. 48; and Jacques Genet, A History of Chinese Civilization , 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), Chapter 1.

[709]Suisheng Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 39, 40, 166-7; W. J. F. Jenner, ‘Race and History in China ’, New Left Review , 11 (September/October 2001), p. 71.

[710]Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), p. 508.

[711]Quoted in Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , p. 40.

[712]Barry Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People’s Republic of China’, in Frank Dikötter, ed., The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (London: Hurst and Company, 1997), p. 79; and Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , pp. 167, 171.

[713]Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, p. 81.

[714]Frank Dikötter, introduction to his The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan , p. 1.

[715]W. J. F. Jenner, ‘Race and History in China ’, pp. 74-6.

[716]www.unesco.org/ext/field/beijing/whc/pkm-site.htm.

[717]Frank Dikötter, ‘Racial Discourse in China: Continuities and Permutations’, in his The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan , p. 20; and Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, pp. 84-9.

[718]Jonathan Watts, ‘Ancient Skull Offers Clues to Origins of Chinese’, Guardian , 23 January 2008.

[719]‘Stirring Find in Xuchang’, China Daily , 28 January 2008.

[720]John Reader, Missing Links: The Hunt for Earliest Man (London: Penguin, 1999), p. 111, quoted in Dikötter, ‘Racial Discourse in China,’ p. 29; Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , pp. 168-9;and Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, p. 87.

[721]Geoff Wade, ‘Some Topoi in Southern Border Historiography During the Ming (and Their Modern Relevance)’ in Sabine Dabringhaus and Roderich Ptak, eds, China and Her Neighbours: Borders, Visions of the Other, Foreign Policy 10th to 19th Century (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1997), p. 147.

[722]Perdue, China Marches West , pp. 510-11.

[723]Zhao, A Nation State by Construction , p. 169; interview with Wang Xiaodong, Beijing, 29 August 2005; and Wade, ‘Some Topoi’, pp. 135- 57.

[724]Zheng Yangwen, ‘Move People Buttress Frontier: Regime Orchestrate [ sic ] Migration-Settlement in the Two Millennia’, workshop on ‘Asian Expansions: The Historical Processes of Polity Expansion in Asia’, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 12–13 May 2006, p. 1.

[725]Johnston argues that Chinese military strategy, contrary to much conventional wisdom, has traditionally placed the major emphasis on what he calls a ‘parabellum’ approach — that conflict is a constant feature of human affairs; Alastair Iain Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 249-59. Wang Xiaodong points out: ‘Chinese academics say China has a peaceful history but the Qing dynasty was very violent in its imperial expansion. When people tell you that China was peaceful, it is lies.’ Interview with Wang Xiaodong, Beijing, 29 August 2005.

[726]Lovell, The Great Wall , pp. 43-4.

[727]Ibid., p. 83.

[728]‘The Mongol threat was defined in essentially racialist, zero-sum terms.’ Johnston, Cultural Realism , p. 250.

[729]Lovell, The Great Wall , p. 109.

[730]Wang Gungwu, Joining the Modern World: Inside and Outside China (Singapore and London: Singapore University Press and World Scientific, 2000), p. 11.

[731]Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization , pp. 124- 6; and Lovell, The Great Wall , p. 37.

[732]Perdue, China Marches West , pp. 333-42.

[733]Ibid., p. 544.

[734]Ibid., p. 345.

[735]Zheng Yangwen, ‘Move People Buttress Frontier’, pp. 1–4, 11–12.

[736]David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations (London: Little, Brown, 1998), p. 425.

[737]Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , pp. 23, 176.

[738]Ibid., pp. 44-6.

[739]Callahan, Contingent States , pp. 82, 85-6.

[740]Ibid., p. 34; and Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , pp. 41-3.

[741]R. Bin Wong, China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2000), p. 103; Peter C. Perdue, ‘Why Do Empires Expand?’, workshop on ‘Asian Expansions: The Historical Processes of Polity Expansion in Asia’, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 12–13 May 2006; and Callahan, Contingent States , p. 87.

[742]Callahan, Contingent States , pp. 26-7.

[743]Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction , pp. 13–16.

[744]Wang Gungwu, China and the Chinese Overseas (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1991), pp. 259-61.