Николас Остлер - Empires of the Word - A language History of the World

ibid., vi.56.

Strabo, vi.1.2.

Pliny, Natural History , 29.1.7.-14.

Juvenal, vi.455.

Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae , xvii. 17.

Strabo, v.3.6.

Tacitus was right to classify the Veneti and Fenni as neither Germans nor Sarmatians (who were Iranian nomads, related to the Scythians). But he goes on to identify the Peucini with the Bastarnae, known to have been Germanic (Strabo, vii.3.17).

Tacitus, Germania , xlvi.

Ptolemy, Geography , iii.5: ’katékhei dè tèbar;n Sarmatían éthnē mégista hoí te Ouenédai par’ hólon tòn Ouenedikòn kólpon’.

Strabo, vii.3.2, vii.5.2.

Lambert (1997: 123). These two were found in the regions of Nièvre and Autun in France. The ordinal numbers from the potter’s kiln in La Graufenesque are on p. 131.

Polybius, Histories , ii.17; Livy, v.34. Cf. Cunliffe (1997:71).

Martial, Epigrams , iv.60.8.

Lehmann (1987:76ff.).

Isidore, Etymologiae , xiv.6.6: ’Scotia idem et Hibernia proxima Britanniae insula, spatio terrarum angustior, sed situ fecundior. Haec ab Africa in Boream porrigitur. Cuius parles priores Hiberiam et Cantabricum Oceanum intendunt, unde et Hibernia dicta …’

Avienus, Ora Maritima , 11. 108-16: ’Ast hinc duobus in sacram, sic insulam / Dixere prisci, solibus cursi rati est. / Haec inter undas multa[m] caespitem iacet,/Eamque late gens Hiernorum colit./Propinqua rursus insula Albionum patet./Tartesiisque in terminos Oestrumnidum/negotiandi mos erat. Carthaginis/Etiam coloni[s] et vulgus inter Herculis/Agitans columnas haec ad[h]ibant aequora.’

ibid., II. 98-9: ’ …metallo divites/stanni atque plumbi …’

Cunliffe (1997, ch. 8); Cunliffe (2001, esp. ch. 7).

They are detailed meticulously, and compared globally, in Gensler (1993).

Polybius, Histories , ii.17.

Reported in Cary (1954: 180).

Gildas, De Excidio Britonum , 6: ‘ …ita ut in proverbium et derisum longe lateque efferretur quod Britanni nec in bello fortes nec in pace fideles’.

Tacitus, Dialogus de Oratoribus , x. 1-2.

Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses , i, preface.

Domitius Ulpianus, Digest , xxxi.1.11.

Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae , iii.3.

Plutarch, Marius , fin.

Tacitus, Agricola , xxi.

Juvenal, Satires , xv.110-12.

Jackson (1994 [1953]: 107-10); Smith (1983).

Tomlin (1987).

Menéndez Pidal (1968: 19).

Harris (1989: 315-16).

Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana , prologue 4.

Caesarius Arelatensis, Sermones , vi.l-2; viii.l.

Eutropius had written in the fourth century: ‘Trajan, having conquered Dacia, had transferred there boundless numbers of people from all over the Roman world to tend the fields and the cities.’ Breviarium ab urbe condita , viii.6.

Bourciez (1967: 30, 135-7).

The evidence is marshalled in Keys (1999, chs 13-16).

Weale et al. (2002).

Terrence Kaufman’s calculation, using the standard Swadesh list of two hundred basic word meanings. Thomason and Kaufman (1988: 365).

Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptorum , i, 1.31.14.

This is quoted in Wright (1982:109), as at Vienna Nationalbibliothek 795. I have followed Migne (also quoted by Wright) in correcting sene to sine.

I am stating here as simple fact the thesis established with great documentary effort by Roger Wright since 1982. The alternative would be to suppose that the pronunciation of Latin had been kept constant for the preceding four centuries, without any special pleading or teaching. The experience in England since the Great Vowel Shift (fifteenth to sixteenth centuries) shows that scholars even of a written language that is quite distinct from their own do not, without copious urging and dispute, exert themselves to keep its sound system separate from that used in their daily speech.

De dissensionibus filiorum Ludovici pii , iii, ch. 5, dated by Studer and Waters (1924: 24) to 841-3. The text is there quoted in full.

Wright (1982: 124).

‘ …Et ut easdem omelias quisque aperte transferre studeat in rusticam Romanam linguam aut Thiotiscam, quo facilius cuncti possint intellegere quae dicuntur.’ As quoted in ibid.: 120, 122, from Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Legum , iii, 2.1.

Menéndez Pidal (1972: 24-5); also quoted in Wright (1982: 173).

Dante, De vulgari eloquentia , i.9.8-11: ’nec aliter mirum videatur quod dicimus, quam percipere iuvenem exoletum, quern exolescere non videmus: nam quae paulatim moventur, minime perpenduntur a nobis, et quanto longiora tempora variatio rei ad perpendi requirit, tanto rem illam stabiliorem putamus. non etenim admiramur, si extimationes hominum, qui parum distant a brutis, putant eandem civitatem sub invariabili semper civicasse sermone, cum sermonis variatio civitatis eiusdem non sine longissima temporum successione paulatim contingat, et hominum vita sit etiam, ipsa sua natura, brevissima. si ergo per eandem gentem sermo variatur, ut dictum est, successive per tempora, nec stare ullo modo potest, necesse est, ut disiunctim abmotimque morantibus varie varietur, ceu varie variantur mores et habitus, qui nec natura nec consortio confirmantur, sed humanis beneplacitis localique congruitate nascuntur. hinc moti sunt inventores grammaticae facultatis: quae quidem grammatica nihil aliud est quam quaedam inalterabilis locutionis identitas diversihus temporibus atque locis.’

Dante, Convivio , i.2.9: ’Movemi limore d’infamia, e movemi desiderio di dottrina dare la quale altri veramente dare non può.’

Dialogues in the English and Malaiane Languages: or, Certaine Common Formes of Speech, first written in Latin, Malaian, and Madasgascar tongues, by the diligence and painfull endeuour of Master Gotardus Arthusius, a Dantisker, and now faithfully translated into the English tongue by Augustine Spalding Merchant, for their sakes, who happily shall hereafter undertake a voyage to the East-Indies. At London, Imprinted by Felix Kyngston for William Welby, and are to bee sold at his shop in Pauls Church-yard, at the signe of the Swan, 1614.