Николас Остлер - Empires of the Word - A language History of the World

Yule and Burnell (1986: 456): ‘It is a saying in Goozerat,—"Who goes to Java Never returns. If by chance he return, Then for two generations to live upon, Money enough he brings back Ršs Mšlš, ii.82 (1878 edn: 418).

Majumdar (1975:21).

Coedès (1968: 26-7, 36, 275).

ibid.: 37, 276.

Majumdar (1975: 13).

ibid.: 19-20.

ibid.: 48.

Mahābhārata, Āranyakaparva , 173; Majumdar (1975: 25-7).

Coedès (1968: 369).

Fo-Kwo-Ki, xl (in Beal 1884: part 1, p. lxxxi).

Coedès (1968: 17); Bechert and Gombrich (1984: 147).

Ramsay (1987: 121-4).

For the details of the Tibetan script and its origin, I have been dependent on Beyer (1992:40-50).

There is some evidence that Tibetans could write earlier than this. There are extant contemporary annals of the period 650 to 747, and for the year 655 we find: The King stayed at Mer-khe , and the prime minister Ston-tsan wrote the text of his commands to Ngor-ti.

Beyer (1992: 36-7).

As conjectured in van Leur (1955: 113) and discussed in Hall (1981: 231-3).

Basham (1967:491).

Rangarajan (1992: 18-21).

Si-Yu-Ki, ix (in Beal 1884: part 2, pp. 171-2).

Old Oligarch, Athenian Constitution, ii.8: kaì hoi mèn Héllēnes idíāi māllon kaì phṓbar;nēi kaì diaítēi kai skhḗmati khrõbar;ntai, Athēnaĩoi dè kekraménēi ex hapántōn tõbar;n Hellébar;nōn kaì barbárōn.

Herodotus, viii.144 (quoted in the epigraph to this chapter).

ibid., iv. 183.4. They lived along the Red Sea coast, according to Strabo, xvii.1.2.

Aeschylus, Agamemnon , 1050-1.

Thucydides, ii.35-46.

tèbar;n pólin pábar;san tŋbar;s Helládos paídeusin eĩnai: Thucydides, ii.41.

Menander, fragment 72, ed. Kock.

Heraclitus, fragment 119.

Aristophanes, Knights , 1169.

Hesiod, Catalogues of Women (Loeb edn, fr. 4).

Thucydides, iii.38.4.

Buck (1955: 10-14).

Strabo, vi.1.2.

Segs 30.1664 and 20.326 (Greek-Aramaic Buddhist text), Schlumberger et al. (1958). See Chapter 5, ‘The character of Sanskrit’, p. 187, and Chapter 3, ‘Aramaic—the desert song: Interlingua of western Asia’, p. 84.

Salomon (1998: 265-7). Hēliodōros comes out as Heliodora -, but Antialkidas as Amtalikita .- Very much in the Aśoka tradition, it contains gratuitous urgings to Buddhist virtue. See Chapter 5, ‘Outsiders’ views’, p. 192.

Ghirshman (1954: 229-30).

Mango (1980: ch. 1).

Plutarch, Mark Antony , xxvii.

Cambridge Ancient History , vol. vii.1 2, p. 180.

Drew-Bear et al. (1999).

Strabo, iv.1.5.

Plautus, Epidicus , iii.3.29.

Polybius, Histories , iii.59.

Vergil, Aeneid , vi.847-53.

pergraecari est epulis et potationibus inservire: in the dictionary of Sextus Pomponius Festus of the late second century AD. The word is common in Plautus, the great adapter of Greek plays for Roman audiences in the second century BC.

Sawyer (1999: 37).

ibid.: 35.

The source is an Athenian sophist, Philostratus, whose Life of Apollonius of Tyana was commissioned at the end of the second century AD by the wife of the Roman emperor Septimius Severus. This is a work of devotional literature, and so its accuracy has been questioned; but Woodcock (1966: 130) argues that archaeology shows the author was in fact well informed about details of this land so remote from contemporary Rome and the Mediterranean.

Wiesehöfer (2001: 122).

ibid.: 155.

Itinerarium Aetheriae (ed. H. Pétré, Paris, 1948), xlvii.3-4 (quoted in Mango 1980: 19).

Mango (1980: 25).

De Thematibus , Introduction, Pertusi edn, 1952, quoted in Horrocks (1997:150).

Procopius, Secret History , xviii.20-21.

Third Part of the Ecclesiastical History of John Bishop of Ephesus , trans. R. Payne Smith. Oxford, 1860, pp. 423-4 (quoted in Mango 1980: 24).

P. Lemerle, La Chronique improprement dite de Monemvasie , in Revue des etudes byzantines , xxi (1963), pp. 9-10 (quoted in Mango 1980: 24). The Kafirs were perhaps Muslim converts; the Thracēsians were not Thracians, but from the Thracēsian theme, in the west of Anatolia.

Leo VI, Tactica , in Patrologia Graeca , ed. J. P. Migne, cvii, 969A (quoted in Mango 1980: 28).

Herodotus, ii.33, iv.49. The Cynetes, aka Cynesians, may have been correctly placed just beyond the Pillars of Hercules, since Strabo, iii.1.4, calls this area, the modern Algarve, Cuneus—though he thought that it was named in Latin after its wedge-like shape.

Jacoby (1923: no. 70, fr. 30).

Strabo, vii.3.8; Arrian, i.4.6-8.

Táin Bo Cúailnge (Book of Leinster, 2nd Recension), 11. 4733-6, trans. Cecile O’ Rahilly: mono tháeth in fhirmimintni cona frossaib rétland for dunignúis in talman nó mani thí in fharrgi eithrech ochargorm for tulmóing in bethad nó mani máe in talam…

Caesar, De Bello Gallico , i.l.

Diodorus Siculus, v.29-31.

Strabo, vii. 1.2.

Aristotle, fr. 610; Politics , vii.10.

Pliny, iii.57, quoting Clitarchus, who was there. Arrian, vii. 15.5-6, is inclined to discount it, ‘given that no other people [than the Romans] was so possessed by hatred of despotism and its very name’.

Polybius, Histories , i.l.5.

ibid., vi.52.