Николас Остлер - Empires of the Word - A language History of the World

ibid.: 169.

ibid.: 113.

ibid.: 169.

Guichard (2000: 143), quoting Jean-Pierre Molénat.

Corriente (1992:34).

Haddadou (1993: 87).

Ibn Khaldūn, quoted in Ellingham et al. (2001: 552); this thirteenth-century author also wrote a history of the Berbers.

Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddimat , quoted in Armstrong (2000: 90).

Shaw (1976: 5).

Schoff (1912).

Hourani (1995: 92-7).

Dalby (1998: 591-5).

Clauson (2002: 50, 183).

‘Abd al-Ghanī (1929).

Mango (1999: 496).

Khaulavi (1979, vol. ii: 37).

Braudel (1993:45).

ibid.: 112.

ibid.: 41-2.

trans. Lichtheim (1973: 52).

trans. Soothill (1910: 73-4).

Pritchard (1969: 415).

Erman (1894: 544).

ibid.: 106.

ibid.: 244.

Noted by Loprieno (1995: 71).

Moran (1992: xx-xxi).

Bacchylides (1961: 14-16), frag. 20B; also Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 1361.

Greenfield (1985: 701, n. 2).

See Loprieno (1995).

Johnson (1999: 177); Dodson (2001: 90, 92).

According to the Cairene Arab Maqrizi (1365-1442), reported in Lipinski (1997: 29).

By the Translators’ Bureau in late imperial times: Ramsey (1987: 32).

Bazin (1948).

Ramsey (1987: 102-3, 139-40, 236-7). Strictly speaking Cantonese has nine tones, having added one more split.

Hashimoto (1986) argues a little too desperately that Chinese was effectively ‘Altaicised’ in the north, but his evidence is confined to transitory pidginised states of the language in Beijing, and a deviant contemporary dialect in Qinghai, where speakers are probably bilingual in Tibetan.

Norman (1988: 20).

Wang (1992: 11).

Hall (1981: 212).

Coedès (1968: 37). See Chapter 5, ‘Sanskrit in South-East Asia’, p. 204.

Wang (1992: 16).

Grousset (1970: 66).

Mote (1999: 25, 980).

The figures for Egypt are derived from Dollinger (2002), and for China from Barraclough (1978: 80, 127). McEvedy and Jones (1978) suggest a rather lower figure for Egypt in Roman times, 5 million. They simply dismiss the estimate in Diodorus (i.31) of 7 million for Egypt in 300 BC as ‘too high’. For China, they point out that the AD 2 census figures are actually for 11.8 million households. They estimate that China’s population then stayed close to 50 million until the beginning of the second millennium AD, when it began to rise with the greater cultivation of rice in the Yangtze valley, reaching 115 million in 1200, but then falling back in the Mongol era and not recovering until 1500. None of the above affects the general point about the exceptionally high population density of Egypt and China in the pre-modern world.

Figures derived from Russell (1958).

Pritchard (1969: 415).

Arnett (1982: 45-7).

Sallier 2,9,1 = Anastasi Papyri 7,4,6, quoted in Erman (1894: 328).

Anastasi Papyri 5, 10, 8ff., quoted in Erman (1894: 328).

Ramsey (1987: 121-3). See Chapter 5, p. 209.

Norman (1988: 257-63).

Wilkinson (2000: 735).

The Economist , 9 March 1996, p. 4, cited in Graddol (1997: 37).

Karlgren (1954). Its principles are set out succinctly in Norman (1988: 34-42).

Pritchard (1969: 440).

Wilkinson (2000: 723).

Translated by Mote (1999: 156), from Lin Tianwei (1977): Bei Song jiruo de sanzhong xin fenxi. Song shi yanjiu ji 9, 147-98.

Gao (1991: 145).

Ramsey (1987: 224).

Rig Veda, vii. 103.

ibid., x.34.

Mahābhā·ya , i.1.

Ojha, Bharatiya Prācīna Lipi Mālā , 14, no. 6, attributed to Cānakya-nīti.

Caesar, De Bello Gallico , vi. 14.

Martin Prechtel, personal communication.

Plato, Phaedrus 275A.

Mahābhārata , quoted by Kesavan (1992:3).

Brough (1968:31).

Deshpande (1993: 24), quoting Mahābhā·ya , i, p. 2.

Patanjali, Mahābhā·ya on Panini, vi.3.109, trans. Deshpande (1993: 62).

Manu, ii. 18-22.

Deshpande (1993: 86).

ibid.: 16; Rājaśekhara, Kāvyamimāmsa , iv.

Strabo, xv.1.21.

ibid., xv. 1.64.

Milindapañha , i.9.

Fo-Kwo-Ki, xxxvi (in Beal 1884: lxxi).

ibid., xl (in Beal 1884: part 1, p. lxxix).

ibid., xl (in Beal 1884: part 1, p. lxxxiii).

Coedès (1968: 81-2).

Si-Yu-Ki, ii.9 (in Beal 1884: part 1, pp. 77-8).

Gidwani(1994).

Rig Veda, ii.20.7.

Chatterji (1966: 78).

Si-Yu-Ki, x.9-11 (in Beal 1884: part 2, pp. 204-8).

Pañcatantra , v. 31.

Keith Taylor, in Tarling (1999: 195).

Kamara, Pōdoukē and Sōpatma , ‘lying in a row’, are quoted in the first century AD Periplous of the Erythraean Sea (ch. 60). Of these, the first two are presumably on the delta of the Kaveri river and at Puducherry (better known as Pondicherry).