Carol A. Chapelle - The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics

11 D Difficulty and Complexity of Language Features and Second Language Instruction Introduction The Issues The Evidence The Problems and Challenges Summary and Future Directions References Suggested Reading Discourse and Identity Social Identities in Discourse Personal Identities in Narrative Digital, Networked, and Posthuman Identities References Suggested Readings

12 E Early Bilingualism Major Linguistic Developments in BFLA and ESLA Applied Aspects of Early Bilingualism References Suggested Readings English for Academic Purposes Introduction Generic or Specific Attributes in EAP? Approaches to EAP Conclusion References Suggested Readings English in Asian and European Higher Education References Suggested Readings Note English for Business Introduction Researching Written and Spoken Business English The Effects of Using English for Business English for Business in the Future References Suggested Readings English for Occupational Purposes Introduction Surveys in English for Occupational Purposes Analyzing Language and Interactions at Work English for Occupational Purposes in Different Workplace Settings The Social Dimension of English for Occupational Purposes Conclusion References English‐Only Movement Historical Background The Rise of the Contemporary English‐Only Movement Propositions 227 and 203 Proposition 58 and the Future References Suggested Readings Epistemology and Ontology Introduction Ontology Within Metaphysics Epistemology Theories of Knowledge in Mainstream and Second Language Research Constructivist Epistemology and Second Language Research Knowledge Knowledge of Second or Foreign Languages and Language Teachers' Knowledge References Ethnography of Communication as a Research Perspective Hymes's Theoretical Model “Doing Ethnography” Conclusion References Suggested Readings Explicit Knowledge and Grammar Explanation in Second Language Instruction What Is Explicit Knowledge? Isolated or Integrated Grammar Instruction? Grammar Explanation Other Ways of Explaining Grammar What to Explain Taking the Learner Into Account Conclusion References Suggested Readings

13 F First Language Vocabulary Acquisition References Suggested Readings Foreign Accent Why Is a Foreign Accent So Difficult to Overcome? Two Main Linguistic Sources of Foreign Accent: L1 Transfer and Universals Why Are Some Phenomena More Difficult to Learn Than Others? Conclusion References Suggested Readings Form‐Focused Instruction References Suggested Readings Note Formulaic Language and Collocation The Functions of Formulaic Language Acquisition of Formulaic Language Non‐Native Use of Formulaic Language Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Formulaic Sequences Definition Functions Evidence Theoretical Issues Formulaic Sequences in SLA The Future References Suggested Readings Frame Analysis Bateson's Conception of Frame “Frame,” “Keying,” and “Footing” Various Perspectives of Frame Analysis: Interactive Frame and Cognitive/Knowledge Frame Studies of Frame Analysis Conclusion References Suggested Readings Functional Approaches to Translation Historical Background Basic Concepts and Ideas of Skopos Theory Applications to Translator Training Conclusions References Suggested Readings

14 G Genre‐Based Language Teaching References Suggested Readings Genre and Discourse Analysis in Language for Specific Purposes Discourse and Genre Analysis Genre Structures and Features Genre and Community Genre Constellations Genre Pedagogies Critiques Conclusions References Suggested Readings Grammar in Academic Writing Noun Phrase Characteristics Thematization Personal Pronouns Tense Cohesion Hedging Intertextuality, Citation, and Knowledge Claims References Suggested Readings Grammar and Electronic Communication Introduction E‐Grammar in English Emoji Grammar E‐Grammar and Language Change E‐Grammar and Literacy References Suggested Readings Note

15 H Heritage Languages and Language Policy Defining Heritage Languages Defining HL Learners US Language Policy for Heritage Languages Looking Ahead References Suggested Readings Historical Pragmatics Introduction Approaches and Data Application Conclusion References Suggested Readings History of Language‐Teaching Methods Early History Grammar Translation Method Direct Method Audio‐Lingual Method Cognitive Approaches to Language Teaching Communicative Language Teaching Conclusion References Suggested Readings History of Translation The Object of Inquiry Research Questions and Source Collection, Evaluation, and Interpretation Writing Translation History Sample Approaches to Translation History Toward Integrative Translation History References Suggested Readings

16 I Identities and Language Teaching in Classrooms Theories of the Social Theories of the Sociomaterial Explorations in Sociomaterialism Conclusion References Suggested Readings Identity and Second Language Acquisition Theoretical Framework Identity on the SLA Agenda Key Directions in Identity Research Conclusion References Immersion Education Program Models and Outcomes Pedagogical Issues Conclusions References Suggested Readings Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning Introduction Reasons for Educational Innovation Innovation Implementation Barriers to Innovation Implementation The Importance of Secondary Innovations References Suggested Readings Instructed Second Language Acquisition References Suggested Readings Intelligibility in World Englishes References Suggested Readings Intercultural Competence Competence Models of Intercultural Competence Contexts and Applications Assessment or Measuring of Intercultural Competence References Suggested Readings Intercultural Interaction Introduction Culture and Achieving Understanding Culture and the Management of Relations Culture, Identity, and Personal Growth Competence in Intercultural Interaction References Suggested Readings Interlanguage Origins of the Concept of Interlanguage Defining Interlanguage The Relevant Data for the Study of Interlanguage The Revised Interlanguage Hypothesis References Suggested Readings International Phonetic AlphabetIntroduction History The International Phonetic Alphabet, English Spelling, and Dictionaries The International Phonetic Alphabet Itself The International Phonetic Alphabet on the Computer Conclusion References Suggested Readings Note Interviews in Qualitative Research Forms of Interviewing in Qualitative Research Designing Qualitative Studies That Use Interviews Asking Questions Issues in Conducting Interviews Theorizing Interviews Transcribing and Analyzing Interview Data Quality in Interviewing The Future of Interview Research References Suggested Readings Online Resources

17 K Knowledge Base of Language Teachers Teachers' Knowledge About Language Teachers' Knowledge of Second Language Acquisition Teachers' Identities, Moral Values, and Critical Consciousness Language Teachers' Sense Making in Action References Suggested Readings

18 L Language, Culture, and Context An Integrative View of Language Language and Culture Cultural Dimensions of Language The Language–Culture Nexus in Context References Suggested Reading Note Language and Globalization References Suggested Readings Note Language and Identity References Suggested Readings Language Ideology in the Discourse of Popular Culture References Suggested Readings Language Ideology and Public Discourse Language Ideology and Public Discourse Language Ideologies: Differences and Commonalities Public Versus Private? Moving Beyond Language: Current Developments in Language Ideology Research References Suggested Readings Language Planning: Qin Shihuangdi's Contribution References Suggested Readings Language Policy and Planning: Kemal Atatürk’s Contribution References Suggested Reading Note Language Program Evaluation Introduction to Program Evaluation The Emergence of Language Program Evaluation Contemporary Impetus for Language Program Evaluation Characteristics of Contemporary Program Evaluation References Suggested Readings Note Language Teaching and Learning: Quantitative Methods An Example Study Additional Considerations References Suggested Reading Appendix: Data Set Languaging: Collaborative Dialogue as a Source of Second Language Learning Definition Collaborative Dialogue (CD) as a Source of Learning Contexts Implicated in the Quality and Quantity of CD Mediational Means Used Inseparability of Cognition and Emotion Conclusion References Suggested Reading Learner Beliefs in Second Language Learning The Beginnings The Classics Continuation of Research Along Two Lines Most Recent Research: Further Twists and Turns Conclusion: Challenges and Directions for Future Research References Suggested Readings Learner Corpora Learner Corpus Design Criteria Learner Corpus Typology Learner Corpus Methodology Learner Corpus Analysis Learner Corpus‐Based Applications References Suggested Readings Lexical Borrowing Notable Examples Factors That Encourage Lexical Borrowing The Adaptations of Borrowing Reactions to Lexical Borrowing The Implications of Lexical Borrowing for Foreign/Second Language Study Conclusion References Suggested Reading Lexical Priming References Note Lexicogrammar Introduction Systemic Functional Linguistics Corpus Linguistics References Suggested Reading Linguaculture References Suggested Readings Lingua Franca and Language of Wider Communication References Suggested Readings Note Linguistic Imperialism Expansion Through Linguistic Imperialism Ongoing Tensions Between Linguistic Imperialism and Resistance References Suggested Readings Linguistic Landscape Studies Introduction Emerging Themes Methodology Outlook and Further Expansion References Suggested Readings