2D Monoelements

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-65525-1

Cover image: Pixabay.Com

Cover design by Russell Richardson

Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines

The development of new two-dimensional (2D) monoelements-based semiconductor materials, such as phosphorene, graphene, antimonene, etc., has attracted many researchers due to their wide range of applications in diverse sectors along with their promotion of novel innovations in the field of science. Due to their impressive physical, chemical, electronic, and optical properties these 2D monoelements have been identified as potential agents for a variety of applications such as electronics, theranostics, therapeutic delivery, bioimaging, sensors, field-effect transistors, the environment, energy conversion, storage, etc.

This edition of Monoelements: Properties and Applications explores the basic idea of 2D monoelements, classifications, and application in field-effect transistors for sensing and biosensing. Finally, various challenges, future developments, and research progress are also discussed. This book will be useful for beginners and experts—from undergraduate students to industrial engineers—working in the area of semiconductors, materials science, and engineering. Based on thematic topics, this edition contains the following eleven chapters:

Chapter 1investigates recent advances in phosphorene. In particular, the effects of its strong anisotropy and its high reactivity on the physical properties of pure and functionalized phosphorene are discussed in detail. This largely distinguishes phosphorene from other 2D materials and makes it the ideal platform for emerging devices.

Chapter 2provides insights into the recent exploration of the diverse properties of 2D antimonene, continuous updating of preparation methods, as well as further development of potential applications, and then looks ahead to the opportunities and challenges facing antimonene in the future.

Chapter 3presents a brief review of graphene and its derivatives. Applications of graphene and graphene oxide in the electronic and biomedical fields are discussed, and their physical properties like thermal and electrical properties are outlined.

Chapter 4discusses the molecular docking simulation study used to analyze the binding mechanisms of graphene oxide as a cancer drug carrier.

Chapter 5aims to group the significant work reported in the last few years on metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)-derived carbon (graphene and carbon nanotubes) and MOF-carbon composite materials, with a special emphasis on the use of these nanostructures for energy storage devices (supercapacitors).

Chapter 6summarizes the basic idea of 2D classification like graphene application in field-effect transistors for sensing and biosensing. These 2D monoelements have been identified as potential agents for a variety of applications such as theranostics, therapeutic delivery, bioimaging, gas sensors, biosensors, field-effect transistors, semiconductors, etc.

Chapter 7describes various graphene-based ternary materials as a super-capacitor electrode. Different forms of functionalized graphene are discussed, including graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide and its characteristic properties. A main focus of this chapter is the synthesis and electrochemical features of various graphene-based ternary composites with conducting polymer, metal oxide and other carbon-based materials.

Chapter 8explains the physico-chemical properties such as electronic band structure, electrochemical influence of graphene doping, and chemistry behind graphite exfoliation. Furthermore, it extends to electrochemical sensing of analytes such as glucose, DNA and aptamer, pollutants, gas, pharmaceutics, and antioxidants.

Chapter 9describes the structures, fundamental properties, and applications of germanene and aims to draw the attention of researchers towards the possibilities offered by the use of germanene-based materials for improving their working characteristics and for replacing rather expensive traditional materials used in energy storage devices.

Chapter 10discusses the fundamental milestones of graphene origin, synthesis routes, advantages, and various literature cites toxicity studies. The role of 2D graphene in gene-delivery, tissue-engineering, prosthetic-implants, cancer-therapy, and biosensing fields are explored as well. The major arena of focus is ascribed to in vivo and in vitro studies of graphene for biomedical use.

Chapter 11describes graphene and graphene-based materials for energy devices. The chapter broadly discusses the role of graphene as electroactive anode and cathode materials with major focus on lithium ion batteries and supercapacitors. The chapter also includes basic synthesis and characterization techniques.

EditorsInamuddinRajender Boddula Mohd Imran Ahamed Abdullah M. AsiriSeptember 2020

Lalla Btissam Drissi1,2,3*, Siham Sadki1 and El Hassan Saidi1,2,3

1Faculté des Sciences, Université Mohammed V de Rabat, Rabat, Morocco

2Academie Hassan II des Sciences et Techniques, Rabat, Morocco

3CPM, Centre of Physics and Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V University, Rabat, Morocco

Abstract

Phosphorene is a stable 2D elemental material obtained via the exfoliation of 3D layered phosphorus. Phosphorene exhibits several interesting features, including its unique highly buckled structural characteristics which lead to strong anisotropies in the transport, electronic, optical, mechanical, and thermal properties of this material along its two directions: zigzag and armchair. These excellent properties render phosphorene an ideal platform for various optoelectronic devices. However, under atmospheric conditions, for example, in the presence of oxygen, water, and light, phosphorene is very reactive due to the free non-bonding electrons existing on its surface. Consequently, the O-concentrations effect on the optoelectronic response, the elastic parameters, and thermal conductivity of phosphorene is significant and indicates interesting results.

Keywords:Phosphorene, synthesis, chemical functionalization, optoelectronic properties, mechanical response, thermal conductivity

The 3D phosphorus is a very abundant element existing in several polymorphous forms. Among the allotropes of phosphorus, namely, white, red, violet, black, and blue; the black one (BP) constitutes the most thermodynamically stable phase under ambient conditions. This layered allotrope was discovered for the first time more than a century ago through the high-pressure [1]. Recently, 3D BP was synthesized from red phosphorus using the new sonochemical method [2]. In bulk BP, the layers are weakly stacked together via VDW interactions [3]. In each layer, the P atoms are connected to their three nearest neighbors by covalent bonds that form a rippled honeycomb structure [4]. BP is a semi-conductor with a direct-gap, a strong in-plane anisotropy and a density greater than 2.5 g/cm 3[5, 6].

Like its counterpart graphene, stable 2D phosphorene can be mechanically extracted from 3D BP. In 2014, phosphorene was synthesized, for the first time, using a scotch tape based microcleavage method [7–9]. The phosphorene’s unit cell is composed of four P atoms and appears highly buckled in the armchair (AC) axis [10]. Because of its geometric characteristics, phosphorene exhibits highly anisotropic physical properties along its AC with respect to its zigzag one [11, 12]. Phosphorene is a p-type semiconductor [13–15] that shows a high flexibility, an important specific capacity and discharge potential that are very required for advanced battery applications [16–18]. In addition, it exhibits a strong excitonic effect [19], an optical gap located at 1.2 eV and its absorbs infrared to near ultraviolet radiation [20]. This new hexagonal material has great potential applications in optoelectronics and photovoltaic devices [21].