Encyclopedia of Glass Science, Technology, History, and Culture

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2 Volume I Volume I Title Page Copyright Page List of Contributors Preface Select Additional Reading General Introduction 1 A Historical Random Walk 2 Some Basic Concepts of Glass Science References Appendix A Section I.: Glassmaking 1.1 Glass Production: An Overview 1 Introduction 2 Industrially Manufactured Glasses 3 Process‐controlling Properties 4 Glass Composition – its Relevance to Glass Properties 5 Perspectives References 1.2 Raw Materials for Glassmaking: Properties and Constraints 1 Introduction 2 Raw‐material Specifications 3 From Raw Materials to Melt 4 Special Raw Materials 5 Perspectives References 1.3 Fusion of Glass 1 Introduction 2 Overview of Industrial Processes 3 Batch Preparation 4 The Conversion of Batch into Melt 5 Fining, Refining, Homogenization 6 Energetics of Glass Melting 7 Perspectives Appendix References 1.4 Primary Fabrication of Flat Glass 1 Introduction 2 Overview 3 Updraw Processes 4 Roll Out Process 5 Float Process 6 Downdraw Processes 7 Perspectives References 1.5 Fabrication of Glass Containers 1 Introduction 2 Principles of Glass‐Container Forming 3 Glass‐Container Forming Processes 4 Making of the Gob: Forehearth, Feeder, and Shears 5 IS‐Forming Machine 6 Hot‐End Handling, Hot‐End Coating, and Annealing 7 Cold‐End Handling and Inspection 8 Perspectives References 1.6 Continuous Glass Fibers for Reinforcement 1 Introduction 2 Commercial Glass Fibers 3 Manufacturing of Glass Fibers 4 Markets and Applications 5 Perspectives References 1.7 Simulation in Glass Processes 1 Introduction 2 A Brief Overview 3 Fundamental Phenomena, Governing Equations, and Simulation Tools 4 Simulations in Glass Manufacturing Processes: A Few Examples 5 Simulation Data Management 6 Perspectives 4.2 Acknowledgements References Section II.: Structure Reference 2.1 Basic Concepts of Network Glass Structure 1 Introduction 2 The Zachariasen–Warren Random Network Model 3 Silica – The Archetypal Glass 4 Microcrystalline Models 5 Modifiers and Non‐Bridging Oxygens 6 Intermediate‐Range Order 7 Chalcogenide Glasses 8 Perspectives Acknowledgements References 2.2 Structural Probes of Glass 1 Introduction 2 Diffraction (Scattering) 3 X‐ray Absorption Techniques 4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 5 Vibrational Spectroscopies 6 Other Techniques 7 Perspectives Acknowledgements References 2.3 Microstructure Analysis of Glasses and Glass Ceramics 1 Introduction 2 Acronyms 2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 3 Transmission Electron Microscopy 4 Scanning Probe Microscopy 5 X‐Ray Microscopy 6 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 2.4 Short‐range Structure and Order in Oxide Glasses 1 Introduction 2 One‐component Oxide Glass Formers 3 Modifying the Network: Silicates and Phosphates 4 Modifying the Network: Borates and Germanates 5 Network Cations in Aluminosilicates 6 Short‐range Order and Modifier Cations 7 Interactions of Network Modifiers and Network Order/Disorder 8 Perspectives References 2.5 The Extended Structure of Glass 1 Introduction 2 Extended Structure of Glass: The Need for a Multiplicity of Techniques 3 Structural Order over Different Length Scales 4 Structural Aspects of Density Fluctuations 5 Models of Glass Structure 6 Structural Heterogeneity in Glasses 7 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 2.6 Structure of Chemically Complex Silicate Systems 1 Introduction 2 Glass and Melt Polymerization 3 Metal Oxide–SiO 2Systems 4 Aluminum and Aluminate 5 Ferric and Ferrous Iron 6 Minor Components in Silicate Glasses and Melts 7 Perspectives References 2.7 Topological Constraint Theory of Inorganic Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Concepts of the Topological Constraint Theory 3 Polyhedral Constraint Theory 4 The Bond Constraint Theory 5 Temperature‐Dependent Constraints 6 Topological Constraint Theory, Thermodynamics, and the Potential Energy Landscape Formalism 7 Perspectives Acknowledgements References 2.8 Atomistic Simulations of Glass Structure and Properties 1 Introduction 2 Basics of Numerical Simulations 3 Monte‐Carlo Simulations 4 Molecular Dynamics Simulations 5 Modeling: Simulation Techniques and Examples 6 Perspectives References 2.9 First‐principles Simulations of Glass‐formers 1 Introduction 2 Ab Initio Simulations 3 Structural Properties 4 Vibrational Properties 5 Calculations of NMR Spectra 6 Perspectives References Section III.: Physics of Glass 3.1 Glass Formation 1 Introduction 2 Glass and Relaxation 3 Kinetic Theory of Vitrification 4 The Viscosity Factor 5 Structural Factors 6 Glass‐Liquid Transition 7 Perspectives Acknowledgements References 3.2 Thermodynamics of Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Basics of Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics 3 Supercooled Liquids 4 Glass as a Nonequilibrium Substance 5 Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics of the Glass Transition 6 Physical Aging 7 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 3.3 The Glass Transition and the Entropy Crisis 1 Introduction 2 Important Concepts and Theories 3 Nonsingular Glass Phenomenology 4 Nonequilibrium Formulation: Brief Review 5 Nonequilibrium Relaxation in Internal Equilibrium 6 The Free Volume and the Communal Entropy 7 The Unifying Approach for Glasses 8 Perspectives Acknowledgement References 3.4 Atomic Vibrations in Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Atomic Vibrations in Disordered Solids 3 Vibrations and Thermal Properties 4 Inelastic Spectroscopy in Glasses 5 Vibrational Spectra 6 The Boson Peak 7 Perspectives Acknowledgments References Additional References for Figure Captions 3.5 Density of Amorphous Oxides 1 Introduction 2 Measuring the Density of Amorphous Oxides 3 Measured Density Variations 4 Practical Applications 5 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 3.6 Thermodynamic Properties of Oxide Glasses and Liquids 1 Introduction 2 Thermodynamic Functions 3 Low‐temperature Heat Capacity and Entropy 4 High‐temperature Properties 5 Reaction Thermodynamics 6 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 3.7 Structural and Stress Relaxation in Glass‐Forming Liquids 1 Introduction 2 Structural Relaxation: A Few Examples 3 Structural Relaxation 4 Shear Viscoelasticity 5 Bulk Viscoelasticity 6 Perspectives References 3.8 Hyperquenched Glasses: Relaxation and Properties 1 Introduction 2 Fictive Temperature and Cooling Rates 3 Sub‐ T gRelaxation 4 Anomalous Relaxation 5 Modeling of Sub‐ T gRelaxation 6 Boson Peak 7 Resolving Glass Problems Via Hyperquenching‐Annealing Calorimetry 8 Perspectives References 3.9 Polyamorphism and Liquid–Liquid Phase Transitions 1 Introduction 2 Acronyms 2 Liquid–Liquid Phase Transitions and Polyamorphism 3 Classic Systems Exhibiting Polyamorphism 4 Perspectives References 3.10 Pressure‐Induced Amorphization 1 Introduction 2 First Observation of PIA: Metastable Melting vs. Mechanical Destabilization of Ice Ih 3 SiO 2and AlPO 4: “Memory Glass” Effects 4 SnI 4and Cu 2O: Examples of Compositionally Driven Instability 5 Nanocrystalline Materials 6 Zeolites as Examples of “Perfect Glass” Formation 7 Configurational Energy Landscapes 8 Perspectives References 3.11 Mechanical Properties of Inorganic Glasses 1 Introduction 2 The Importance of Flaws 3 Moduli and Hardness 4 Fracture Toughness and Strength 5 Flaws and Strength 6 Chemically Assisted Crack Growth – Stress Corrosion 7 Improving the Practical Strength of Glass 8 Perspectives References 3.12 Strengthening of Oxide Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Strength and Stresses 3 Elimination of Surface Flaws 4 Thermal Strengthening 5 Chemical Strengthening 6 Strengthening by Coating 7 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 3.13 Radiation Effects in Glass 1 Introduction 2 Point Defects 3 Vitreous Phase Stability and Bubble Formation 4 Glass Network Evolution Under Irradiation 5 Optical Properties6 RIA and Emission 7 Effect on Mechanical Properties 8 Mitigation of Radiation Effects 9 Perspectives References 3.14 Amorphous Ices 1 Introduction 2 Ice Phase Transitions 3 Predictions of Glass–Glass and Liquid–Liquid Transitions 4 Numerical Applications to Water 5 Supercluster Formation at the Glass Transition of Strong Liquids 6 Perspectives References Section IV.