Encyclopedia of Glass Science, Technology, History, and Culture

: Transport Properties 4.1 Viscosity of Glass‐Forming Melts 1 Introduction 2 General Aspects and Definitions 3 Structural Aspects 4 Technological Aspects 5 Temperature Dependence of Viscosity 6 Composition Dependence 7 Dependence on Time and Strain Rate 8 Dependence on Microstructure 9 Perspectives References Appendix Supplementary References 4.2 Ionic and Electronic Transport 1 Introduction 2 Ionic Conductivity and Diffusion 3 Ionic Transport Mechanisms 4 Ionic Transport Above the Glass Transition: An Entropic Mechanism 5 Electronically Conductive Glasses 6 Perspectives References 4.3 Diffusion in Oxide Glass‐forming Systems 1 Introduction 2 Physical and Chemical Description of Diffusion 3 Experimental Methods for Determining Diffusivity 4 Influence on Diffusivity of Species Properties 5 Compositional Control 6 Temperature and Pressure Effects 7 Insights from Molecular Dynamics Simulations 8 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 4.4 Chemical Diffusion in Multicomponent Glass‐forming Systems 1 Introduction 2 Conceptual and Experimental Approaches 3 Tracer vs. Chemical Diffusion 4 Diffusion in Multicomponent Systems 5 Available Chemical Diffusion Data 6 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 4.5 Thermal Diffusivity and Conductivity of Glasses and Melts 1 Introduction 2 Theory 3 Measurement Techniques 4 Thermal Diffusivity and Conductivity Data: Key Variables 5 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 4.6 Atomistic Simulations of Transport Properties 1 Introduction 2 MD Simulations: Conditions and Potentials 3 Dynamics 4 Insights into Dynamic Heterogeneities 5 Mixed Alkali Effect 6 Glass Transition and Thermodynamic Scaling 7 Perspectives References Section V.: Chemistry of Glass 5.1 Chemical Analyses and Characterization of Glass 1 Introduction 2 Gravimetry and Glass Digestion 3 X‐Ray Fluorescence 4 Inductively Coupled Plasma Methods 5 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 6 Microprobe Analyses 7 Special Elements 8 Resistance to Chemical Attack 9 Analyses of Glass Defects 10 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 5.2 Phase Equilibria and Phase Diagrams in Oxide Systems 1 Introduction 2 Thermodynamic Principles 3 Basic Topological Types of Binary T–x Diagrams 4 Ternary Diagrams 5 Some Phase Diagrams for Glass‐Forming Systems 6 Perspectives References 5.3 Thermodynamic Models of Oxide Melts 1 Introduction 2 General Considerations 3 Thermodynamic Models 4 First‐Principles Calculations 5 Perspectives References 5.4 Nucleation, Growth, and Crystallization in Inorganic Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Crystal Nucleation and Classical Nucleation Theory 3 Basic Models of Crystal Growth in Supercooled Liquids 4 Overall Crystallization and Glass‐forming Ability: The Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov Approach 5 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 5.5 Solubility of Volatiles 1 Introduction 2 Principles and Concepts 3 Reactive Volatiles in Silicate Glass and Melt 4 Nonreactive Volatiles in Silicate Glass and Melt 5 Perspectives References 5.6 Redox Thermodynamics and Kinetics in Silicate Melts and Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Oxidation/Reduction Thermodynamics 3 Oxidation/Reduction Kinetics 4 Open‐System Redox Dynamics 5 Closed‐System (or Internal) Redox Dynamics 6 Perspectives References 5.7 Optical Basicity: Theory and Application 1 Introduction: The Need for a Suitable Basicity Scale for Oxide Melts 2 Theoretical Foundation of Optical Basicity 3 Redox Equilibria in Network Melts 4 Optical Basicity and Electronic Polarizability 5 Chemical Reactions: Changes in Structure and Bonding 6 High and Low Optical–Basicity Materials 7 Optical Basicity and Electronegativity 8 Perspectives 4.3 Acknowledgment References 5.8 The Glass Electrode and Electrode Properties of Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Types and Properties of Glass Electrodes 3 Glass Structure as Viewed by the Glass Electrode 4 Theories of the Glass Electrode 5 Perspectives References 5.9 Electrochemistry of Oxide Melts 1 Introduction 2 Thermodynamics of Redox Equilibria 3 Experimental Aspects 4 Standard Potentials and Equilibrium Constants 5 Diffusion Coefficients 6 Voltammetric Sensors: Quantitative Determinations of Polyvalent Elements 7 Impedance Spectroscopy 8 Perspectives References 5.10 Glass/Metal Interactions 1 Introduction 2 Wetting, Sticking, and Adhesion Phenomena 3 Control of High‐Temperature Chemical Interactions at the Metal/Molten Glass Interface 4 Characterization of the Glass/Metal Interaction 5 Corrosion of Metals and Alloys by Molten Glass 6 Perspectives References 5.11 Durability of Commercial‐type Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Chemical Processes and Parameters 3 Alteration as Related to Glass Composition 4 Post‐Production Corrosion of Flat and Container Glass 5 Characterization Methods 6 Protection Methods 7 Perspectives References 5.12 Mechanisms of Glass Corrosion by Aqueous Solutions 1 Introduction 2 Early Models 3 Leached‐layer Model 4 Coupled Interfacial Dissolution‐Reprecipitation (CIDR) 5 Rates of Dissolution and Element Release 6 Perspectives Acknowledgments References Section VI.: Glass and Light 6.1 Optical Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Basic Features 3 Transmitted Light T in 4 Glass Properties 5 Glass Responses 6 Interaction of Optical Components with Light 7 Perspectives References 6.2 The Color of Glass 1 Introduction 2 Background on Color Processes 3 Crystal‐Field‐Driven Glass Color 4 Variation of Glass Coloration 5 Temperature Dependence of the Optical Absorption Spectra of Glasses: Thermochromism 6 Charge‐Transfer Processes: From Amber Glasses to Lunar Glasses 7 Absorption by Organized Clusters and Nanophases 8 Perspectives References 6.3 Photoluminescence in Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Inelastic Light Scattering Through Photoluminescence 3 Photoluminescence and Glass Chemistry 4 Efficiency, Lifetime, and Quenching Effects 5 Applications 6 Perspectives References 6.4 Optical Fibers 1 Introduction 2 Optical Properties and Fiber Designs 3 Optical Fiber Glasses 4 Optical Fiber Fabrication 5 Applications 6 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 6.5 Fluoride and Chalcogenide Glasses for Mid‐infrared Optics 1 Introduction 2 Glass Transparency in the Infrared Region 3 Fluoride Glasses: Formation and Structure 4 Applications of Fluoride Glasses 5 Chalcogenide Glasses 6 Chalcogenide Glass Applications 7 Perspectives References 6.6 Optoelectronics: Active Chalcogenide Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Active Chalcogenide Glasses Doped with Rare‐Earth Ions 3 Optical Fiber Amplifiers 4 Mid‐Infrared Lasers 5 Chalcogenide Quantum Dots 6 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 6.7 Modification Technologies of Glass Surfaces 1 Introduction 2 Hot‐End Processes in Glass Production 3 Cleaning 4 Strengthening 5 Modification of the Surface Topography 6 Structuring and Texturing 7 Applications 8 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 6.8 Thin‐Film Technologies for Glass Surfaces 1 Introduction 2 Acronyms 2 Deposition Techniques 3 Thin Films 4 Transparent Conducting Oxides 5 Miscellaneous Uses 6 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 6.9 Glass for Lighting 1 Introduction 2 Glass for Incandescent and Electric Discharge Lamps 3 Glass for Solid‐State Lighting 4 Perspectives References 6.10 Screens and Displays 1 Introduction 2 Cathode‐Ray Tubes 3 Glasses for Flat‐Panel Displays 4 Liquid‐Crystal Displays 5 Plasma‐Display Panels 6 Organic Light‐Emitting Diodes 7 Device Configuration 8 Perspectives References

3 Volume II Title Page Copyright Page List of Contributors Preface Select Additional Reading Section VII.: Inorganic Glass Families 7.1 Extraterrestrial Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Chondrules: The Oldest Glasses of the Solar System 3 The Lunar Glass‐Bead Factory 4 Cosmic Spherules 5 Terrestrial Versus Extraterrestrial 6 Perspectives Acknowledgements References 7.2 Geological Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Compositional Diversity of Natural Glasses 3 Fulgurites: The Petrified Lightnings 4 Impact‐Related Glasses 5 The Basalt Factory 6 Siliceous Glasses 7 The Fate of Natural Glasses 8 Compositional vs. Rheological Variability 9 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 7.3 Corrosion of Natural Glasses in Seawater 1 Introduction 2 From Basalt Glass to Palagonite 3 Seafloor Basalt Alteration by Abiotic and Biotic Processes 4 Alteration Enhancement by Microorganism Metabolic Processes 5 Biotic Corrosion Models 6 Abiotic Corrosion Models 7 The Abiotic vs. Biotic Alteration Debate 8 Which Mechanism Controls Basalt Glass Corrosion? 9 Perspectives Acknowledgements References 7.4 Metallurgical Slags 1 Introduction 2 Basic Constraints: A Summary 3 From Composition to Reactivity 4 Slag Properties 5 Transport Properties 6 Thermodynamic Properties 7 Perspectives References 7.5 Water Glass 1 Introduction 2 Fabrication of Water Glass 3 Materials and Chemical Stability and Structure 4 Properties of Water Glass 5 Applications of Water Glass 6 Perspectives References 7.6 Borosilicate Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Borosilicate Applications 3 Vycor: A Composition–Structure Case Study 4 Structural Aspects 5 Temperature and Pressure Variations of Network Structure 6 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 7.7 Glass for Pharmaceutical Use 1 Introduction 2 Glass Products and Types 3 Production of Pharmaceutical Glasses and Containers 4 Physical Resistance 5 Chemical Resistance 6 Surface Interactions with Pharmaceutical Products 7 Internal/External Treatments for Chemical/Mechanical Resistance 8 Perspectives References 7.8 Oxynitride Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Solubility of Nitrogen in Glasses 3 Glass Formation in M–Si–Al–O–N Systems and Its Representation 4 Structure of Oxynitride Glasses 5 Effects of Composition on Properties 6 Oxynitride Glass–Ceramics 7 Phosphorus Oxynitride Glasses 8 Lower‐Temperature Preparation Methods 9 Perspectives References 7.9 Phosphate Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Structure 3 Synthesis 4 Physical Properties 5 Optical Properties 6 Chemical Properties 7 Other Applications 8 Perspectives References 7.10 Bulk Metallic Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Glass Formation 3 Structure 4 Mechanical Properties 5 Deformation Behavior at Room Temperature 6 Magnetism: Properties and Applications 7 Other Properties and Applications 8 Perspectives References 7.11 Glass‐Ceramics 1 Introduction 2 History and Present Uses of Glass‐Ceramics 3 Properties of Glass‐Ceramics 4 Examples of Glass‐Ceramics 5 Perspectives References Section VIII.: Organically Related Glasses 8.1 Biogenic Silica Glasses 1 Introduction 2 A Slowly Awakening Scientific Interest 3 Biogenic Silica 4 The Low‐Temperature Silica Factories 5 Biomimetism and Applications 6 Biogenic Silica in the Global Ecosystem 7 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 8.2 Sol–Gel Process and Products 1 Introduction 2 Sol–Gel Processing 3 Advantages and Drawbacks of the Sol–Gel Process 4 Sol–Gel Products and Applications 5 Perspectives References 8.3 Silica Aerogels 1 Introduction 2 Synthesis 3 Properties 4 Applications 5 Markets and Industrial Production 6 Silica Hybrid Aerogels, Aerogel Composites, and Non‐silica Aerogels 7 Perspectives References 8.4 Bioactive Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Melt‐Derived Bioactive Glasses 3 Bioactive Sol–Gel Glasses 4 Degradation and Apatite Formation 5 Biological Response 6 Therapeutic Ions in Bioactive Glasses 7 Applications of Bioglasses 8 Perspectives References 8.5 Dental Glass‐Ceramics 1 Introduction 2 History and Present Uses of Dental Glass‐Ceramics 3 Properties of Dental Glass‐Ceramics 4 Examples of Dental Glass‐Ceramics 5 Perspectives References 8.6 Relaxation Processes in Molecular Liquids 1 Introduction Acronyms 2 From the Boiling Point Down to the Glass Transition 3 Binary Glass‐Forming Liquids 4 Secondary Relaxations 5 Plastic and Glassy Crystals 6 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 8.7 Physics of Polymer Glasses 1 Introduction 2 Polymeric Chains 3 Polymeric Liquids 4 Polymer Transformations 5 Glass Transitions and Aging 6 Polymer Products 7 Perspectives References 8.8 Introduction to Polymer Chemistry 1 Introduction Acronyms 2 Polymer Synthesis 3 Polymerization Processes 4 The Solid State 5 Perspectives Acknowledgments References 8.9 Hybrid Inorganic–Organic Polymers 1 Introduction 2 Sol–Gel for Hybrid Materials 3 Coatings 4 Particles 5 Bulk Materials, Fibers, and Composites 6 Perspectives Acknowledgments References Section IX.: Environmental and Other Issues 9.1 Structural Glass in Architecture 1 Introduction 2 Scheme Design 3 Float‐Glass Processing for Structural Applications 4 Design and Detailing 5 Connections 6 Perspectives References 9.2 Tempered and Laminated Glazing for Cars 1 Introduction 2 A Brief History from the Early Twentieth Century to Today's Huge Market 3 Glazing Functions 4 Manufacturing 5 Perspectives Acknowledgement References 9.3 Stone and Glass Wool 1 Introduction 2 Classification of Man‐Made Vitreous Wool 3 Fiber Spinning Technologies 4 Melt Viscosity and Fiber Spinnability 5 Physical Properties of Stone and Glass Wool 6 Biopersistence and Biodurability 7 Perspectives References 9.4 Glasses for Solar‐energy Technologies 1 Introduction 2 The Energy Problem 3 Solar Electricity 4 Solar Heat 5 Solar Fuels 6 Solar Water Treatments 7 Perspectives References 9.5 Sulfide‐glass Electrolytes for All‐solid‐state Batteries 1 Introduction 2 Classification of All‐solid‐state Batteries 3 Sulfide Glasses 4 Sulfide Glasses as Solid Electrolytes 5 Bulk‐type Batteries with Sulfide Electrolytes 6 Interfacial Design 7 Perspectives References 9.6 The World of the Flat‐glass Industry 1 Introduction 2 A Short Overview: Processes and Products 3 The Float‐glass World 4 Perspectives References 9.7 Design and Operation of Glass Furnaces 1 Introduction 2 The Furnace Families 3 Melter 4 Heat Management 5 Furnace Design 6 NO xEmissions 7 Perspectives References 9.8 Physics and Modeling of Glass Furnaces 1 Introduction 2 Furnace Parameters 3 The Physics of Glass Furnaces 4 Modeling of Glass Furnaces 5 Perspectives Appendix References 9.9 Glass Cullet: Sources, Uses, and Environmental Benefits 1 Introduction 2 Basic Features of Cullet 3 Glass Recycling 4 Separation Technologies 5 Miscellaneous 6 Environmental Aspects 7 Perspectives References 9.10 Immobilization of Municipal and Industrial Waste 1 Introduction 2 Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Residues 3 Environmental Impact of MSWI Residues 4 Special Residues 5 Perspectives References 9.11 Nuclear Waste Vitrification 1 Introduction 2 History of Nuclear Waste Vitrification 3 Nuclear Glasses 4 Long‐Term Stability of Nuclear Glass 5 Industrial Implementation of Nuclear Waste Vitrification 6 Perspectives References 9.12 The International Commission on Glass (ICG) 1 Introduction: Origins of ICG and Founding Members 2 ICG as an Organization 3 The ICG Committees 4 Public Activities 5 Perspectives References Section X.: History References Appendix X A Pliny’s Famous Account of the Origin of Glass in His

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