Bruce Bagemihl - Biological Exuberance

*asterisked references discuss homosexuality/transgender

*Burr, C. (1996) A Separate Creation: The Search for the Biological Origins of Sexual Orientation. New York: Hyperion.

*East, M. L., H. Hofer, and W. Wickler (1993) “The Erect ‘Penis’ Is a Flag of Submission in a Female-Dominated Society: Greetings in Serengeti Spotted Hyenas.” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 33:355–70.

*Frank, L. G. (1996) “Female Masculinization in the Spotted Hyena: Endocrinology, Behavioral Ecology, and Evolution.” In J. L. Gittleman, ed., Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution, vol. 2, pp. 78–131. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

———(1986) “Social Organization of the Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta). I. Demography. II. Dominance and Reproduction.” Animal Behavior 34:1500–1527.

Frank, L. G., J. M. Davidson, and E. R. Smith (1985) “Androgen Levels in the Spotted Hyena Crocuta crocuta: The Influence of Social Factors.” Journal of Zoology, London 206:525–31.

Frank, L. G., and S. E. Glickman (1994) “Giving Birth Through a Penile Clitoris: Parturition and Dystocia in the Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta ).” Journal of Zoology, London 234:659-90.

Frank, L. G., S. E. Glickman, and P. Licht (1991) “Fatal Sibling Aggression, Precocial Development, and Androgens in Neonatal Spotted Hyenas.” Science 252:702-04.

*Frank, L. G., S. E. Glickman, and I. Powch (1990) “Sexual Dimorphism in the Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta ). ” Journal of Zoology, London 221:308-13.

*Frank, L. G., M. L. Weldele, and S. E. Glickman (1995) “Masculinization Costs in Hyenas.” Nature 377:584–85.

*Glickman, S. E., C. M. Drea, M. Weldele, L. G. Frank, G. Cunha, and P. Licht (1995) “Sexual Differentiation of the Female Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta).” Paper presented at the 24 thInternational Ethological Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii.

*Glickman, S. E., L. G. Frank, K. E. Holekamp, L. Smale, and P. Licht (1993) “Costs and Benefits of ‘Andro-genization’ in the Female Spotted Hyena: The Natural Selection of Physiological Mechanisms.” In P. P. G. Bateson, N. Thompson, and P. Klopfer, eds., Perspectives in Ethology, vol. 10: Behavior and Evolution, pp. 87–117. New York: Plenum Press.

*Hamilton, W. H., III, R. L. Tilson, and L.G. Frank (1986) “Sexual Monomorphism in Spotted Hyenas (Crocuta crocuta).” Ethology 71:63–73.

*Harrison Mathews, L. (1939) “Reproduction in the Spotted Hyena, Crocuta crocuta (Erxleben).” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 230:1-78.

*Hofer, H., and M. L. East (1995) “Virilized Sexual Genitalia as Adaptations of Female Spotted Hyenas.” Revue Suisse de Zoologie 102:895–906.

*Kinsey, A. C., W. B. Pomeroy, C. E. Martin, and P. H. Gebhard (1953) Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.

Kruuk, H. (1975) Hyena. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

———(1972) The Spotted Hyena, a Study of Predation and Social Behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

*Mills, M. G. L. (1990) Kalahari Hyenas: Comparative Behavioral Ecology of Two Species. London: Unwin Hyman.

*Neaves, W. B., J. E. Griffin, and J. D. Wilson (1980) “Sexual Dimorphism of the Phallus in Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta).” Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 59:509–13.

*Rasa, O. A. E. (1979a) “The Ethology and Sociology of the Dwarf Mongoose (Helogale undulata rufula ).” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 43:337-406.

*———(1979b) “The Effects of Crowding on the Social Relationships and Behavior of the Dwarf Mongoose (Helogale undulata rufula).” Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 49:317-29.

IDENTIFICATION: A large (over 3 foot tall) kangaroo with a gray coat and a hair-covered muzzle. DISTRIBUTION: Eastern Australia. HABITAT: Open grasslands, forest, woodland. STUDY AREAS: Nadgee Nature Reserve, New South Wales, Australia; Cowan Field Station (Muogammarra Nature Reserve) of the University of New South Wales.

IDENTIFICATION: A smaller kangaroo (2½ feet tall) with a reddish brown wash on its neck. DISTRIBUTION: Coastal southeastern Australia. HABITAT: Forest, brush areas. STUDY AREAS: Michigan State University; Cowan Field Station (Muogammarra Nature Reserve) of the University of New South Wales; subspecies M.r. rulogriseus, Bennett’s Wallaby, and M.r. banksianus.

IDENTIFICATION: A light gray kangaroo standing up to 3 feet tall, with a white facial stripe and a long, slender tail. DISTRIBUTION: Northeastern Australia. HABITAT: Open forest, savanna. STUDY AREA: Near Bonalbo, New South Wales, Australia.

Eastern Gray Kangaroos often associate in large groups of 40–50 animals—sometimes known as MOBS. These comprise smaller cosexual groups of up to 15 individuals, largely females and their young along with a few males. Some individuals are solitary. No pair-bonding occurs between males and females, and the mating system is polygamous or promiscuous. Whiptail Wallabies have a similar social organization, while Red-necked Wallabies are largely solitary (although groups of 8–30 animals may form at times).

Behavioral Expression: Pair-bonds occasionally develop between female Eastern Gray Kangaroos, involving frequent mutual grooming in which the partners affectionately lick, nibble, and rake the fur on each other’s head and neck with their paws. Females in such associations also sometimes court and mount each other, and sexual activity may occur as well between females who are not necessarily bonded to one another. Significantly, heterosexual pair-bonds are not found in this species. In Red-necked Wallabies, females frequently mount each other: one female grabs the other from behind, wrapping her forearms around her partner’s abdomen and tucking her forepaws inside her partner’s thighs. This position resembles heterosexual copulation except that the mounting female is higher up on her partner’s body. Sexual activity is often accompanied by grooming, fur-nibbling and licking, pawing, and nosing of the partner. Males also sometimes mount one another, usually during play-fights in which the partners gently push, wrestle, or “box” one another with their forearms. Occasional affectionate activities such as grooming, licking, embracing, and touching also take place during these sessions, and sometimes one male will sniff or nuzzle the other’s scrotum. Courtship and sexual interactions between male Whiptail Wallabies involve TAIL-LASHING, a sinuous, sideways movement of the tail indicating sexual arousal, often accompanied by an erection. Mounting also occurs; one male sometimes presents his hindquarters to the other by crouching with his chest on the ground and raising his rump. Prior to mounting, a male frequently sniffs the other male’s scrotum (as in Red-necked Wallabies). Swept up in a courtship frenzy, males also sometimes embark on homosexual chases as a part of heterosexual interactions. A group of males will be pursuing a female in heat, furiously circling and dashing after her at breakneck speed; occasionally, other males on the sidelines are then drawn into the excitement of these wild chases—and they are as likely to pursue other males as they are the female.