William M. White - Geochemistry

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 The PREM model of seismic velocities and density variation throu...Figure 11.2 Ternary diagram illustrating ultramafic rock nomenclature based ...Figure 11.3 Modal mineralogy of peridotite xenoliths in the Deep Lithosphere...Figure 11.4 Upper mantle phase diagram.Figure 11.5 Mineral assemblages in the upper 1000 km of the mantle. After Ri...Figure 11.6 The structure of bridgmanite (MgSiO 3). The structure consists of...Figure 11.7 Structure of the post-perovskite phase in the lowermost mantle. ...Figure 11.8 Cross-section of the Earth illustrating the two LLSVPs at the ba...Figure 11.9 Variation of Mg/Si as a function of Al/Si in terrestrial mantle ...Figure 11.10 Correlation of SiO 2, Al 2O 3, and CaO with MgO in peridotites fro...Figure 11.11 Abundances of the elements in the bulk silicate Earth (Table 11...Figure 11.12 Dependence of experimentally determined liquid metal–liquid sil...Figure 11.13 Rare earth patterns of mid-ocean ridge basalts and oceanic isla...Figure 11.14 ε Ndversus 87Sr/ 87Sr in MORB and selected OIB from the PetDB an...Figure 11.15 ε Ndversus 206Pb/ 204Pb in mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and se...Figure 11.16 Mass fraction of the depleted mantle (DMM) calculated from eqn....Figure 11.17 “Spider diagram” displaying concentrations of trace elements no...Figure 11.18 Cartoon illustrating the oceanic crustal recycling model of Hof...Figure 11.19 Mass independently fractionated sulfur isotopes diamonds from t...Figure 11.20 3He/ 4He vs. 87Sr/ 86Sr in MORB and OIB. High 3He/ 4He in many OIB...Figure 11.21 129Xe/ 130Xe vs. 136Xe/ 130Xe in MORB and oceanic island basalts....Figure 11.22 Correlation between tungsten isotopic anomalies (μ 182W) ...Figure 11.23 Olivine Mg#s in peridotite xenoliths from the Kaapvaal and Slav...Figure 11.24 Probability functions for Re−Os model rhenium depletion ages me...Figure 11.25 REE patterns in garnets from a lherzolite xenolith (solid black...Figure 11.26 ε Ndversus γ Osin xenoliths from the subcontinental lithosphere...Figure 11.27 Cross-section of typical oceanic crust (not to scale). Numbers ...Figure 11.28 Na 2O and FeO vs. MgO in MORB from various regions of the mid-oc...Figure 11.29 Regional average Fe 8.0.and Na 8.0versus axial depth in the mid...Figure 11.30 Variation of MgO and FeO in partial melts of mantle peridotite....Figure 11.31 (a) Pressure–temperature relationship of adiabatically rising m...Figure 11.32 Estimates of major element concentrations in the upper continen...Figure 11.33 Rare earth patterns of Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS) com...Figure 11.34 Seismic velocity structure of the continental crust, illustrati...Figure 11.35 Correlation between measured seismic velocity (v P) and SiO 2con...Figure 11.36 Comparison of chondrite-normalized rare earth patterns in upper...Figure 11.37 Enrichment of incompatible elements relative to bulk silicate E...Figure 11.38 Comparison of rare earth patterns of the total oceanic (estimat...Figure 11.39 Comparison of the incompatible element enrichments of the conti...Figure 11.40 Isotopic provinces, based on crustal residence times (τ DM) of t...Figure 11.41 Initial ε Ndas a function of crystallization age for igneous ro...Figure 11.42 (a) Histogram of more than 400,000 U-Pb zircon ages. Data from ...Figure 11.43 Estimated volume of juvenile crustal preserved as a function of...Figure 11.44 Statistical distribution of the chemistry of continental igneou...Figure 11.45 Normalized incompatible enrichments of average MORB (Table 11.7...Figure 11.46 AFM (A: K 2O + Na 2O; F: FeO + MnO; M: MgO) diagram illustrating ...Figure 11.47 Correlation of Ca 6.0and Na 6.0with crustal thickness in island...Figure 11.48 Rare earth element patterns of some typical island arc volcanic...Figure 11.49 Relative alkali–alkaline earth enrichment of IAV illustrated by...Figure 11.50 Pb isotope ratios in island arc volcanics. Fields for the South...Figure 11.51 Relationship between Ba/Na 6.0and Th/Na 6.0in volcanic rocks fr...Figure 11.52 (a) Ba/La versus La/Sm N(subscript N denotes the chondrite-norm...Figure 11.53 Experimentally based phase diagram for the system peridotite + ...Figure 11.54 Cross-section of a subduction zone illustrating island-arc magm...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Phylogenetic relationships among organisms. The eubacteria and t...Figure 12.2 (a) Simple n -alkanes or chain hydrocarbons. The suffix “-ane” is...Figure 12.3 Some simple and branched hydrocarbon chains.Figure 12.4 Some simple doubly and triply-bonded hydrocarbons.Figure 12.5 Two representations of the benzene ring, the foundation of aroma...Figure 12.6 Important functional groups found in organic compounds.Figure 12.7 Some examples of compounds formed by substituting functional gro...Figure 12.8 Examples of functional groups formed by replacing one carbon ato...Figure 12.9 Shorthand structural representation of 3-n-hexene and retinol. C...Figure 12.10 Some simple sugars. (a) linear glucose, (b) cyclic glucose, (c)...Figure 12.11 (a) Three of the 20 common amino acids that can combine to form...Figure 12.12 (a) The structure of pyrimidine and purine groups, essential co...Figure 12.13 A triglyceride fat formed from the alcohol glycerol and three m...Figure 12.14 Terpenoids. (a) Isoprene, the building block of all terpenoids....Figure 12.15 (a) Squalene, the precursor to a variety of terpenoids, includi...Figure 12.16 The Calvin cycle of dark reactions for the production of glucos...Figure 12.17 Illustration of the Krebs cycle, or citric acid cycle, in which...Figure 12.18 Average concentration of dissolved, particulate, and total orga...Figure 12.19 Components of dissolved organic carbon in typical river water. ...Figure 12.20 Black lines show the absorbance, the fraction of light absorbed...Figure 12.21 Van Krevelen diagram showing composition of various biomolecule...Figure 12.22 (a) Dissolved organic matter as a function of depth from the no...Figure 12.23 Comparison of titration curves of salicylic and humic acid. The...Figure 12.24 Examples of rings formed by chelates.Figure 12.25 (a) Copper salicylate complex. The Cu ion is bound to both the ...Figure 12.26 Disruption of water molecules by a large nonpolar organic molec...Figure 12.27 (a) Soil/water adsorption partition coefficients for a variety ...Figure 12.28 Adsorption partition coefficient for 1,4-dichlorobenzene plotte...Figure 12.29 Adsorption of humic acid on δ-Al 2O 3as a function of pH. After ...Figure 12.30 Rate of ligand-promoted dissolution of δ-Al 2O 3as a function of...Figure 12.31 The role of bacteria in the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and su...Figure 12.32 Top: probability density functions of activation energies deter...Figure 12.33 Structure of methane clathrate. Red atoms are oxygen, white are...Figure 12.34 Phase diagram for the stability of methane clathrate in marine ...Figure 12.35 (a) Deoxophylloerythroetioporphyrin (DPEP), a derivative of the...Figure 12.36 Transformation of biomolecules to hydrocarbon biomarkers during...Figure 12.37 The relationship between biomarkers and the tree of life. Based...Figure 12.38 (a) Stereoisomers (enantiomers) of lactic acid; the two version...Figure 12.39 Kerogen maceral groups liptinite, exinite, vitrinite, and inert...Figure 12.40 H/C and O/C ratios of the three types of kerogen. Open triangle...Figure 12.41 Isotopic composition of methane from various sources. Biogenic ...Figure 12.42 Atmospheric CO 2concentration during the Miocene calculated fro...Figure 12.43 General scheme for hydrocarbon generation as a function of dept...Figure 12.44 Ternary diagrams representing the composition of crude oils. (a...Figure 12.45 Distribution of n-alkanes in different crude oils. After Tissot...Figure 12.46 Chemical evolution of coals on a van Krevelen diagram. After Ki...Figure 12.47 Chemical evolution of lignite to coal. After Hatcher and Cliffo...Figure 12.48 The carbon cycle. Numbers in italic show the amount of carbon (...Figure 12.49 Comparison of CO 2in bubbles (gray shows analytical uncertainti...Figure 12.50 Feedback loops in the long-term carbon cycle. Dark arrows repre...Figure 12.51 Concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the Phanerozoi...Figure 12.52 Concentrations of atmospheric CO 2and CH 4measured at the Scrip...Figure 12.53 Annual globally averaged land and ocean surface temperatures si...