Jakob J. Zyl - Introduction to the Physics and Techniques of Remote Sensing

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Discover cutting edge theory and applications of modern remote sensing in geology, oceanography, atmospheric science, ionospheric studies, and more  The thoroughly revised third edition of the 
delivers a comprehensive update to the authoritative textbook, offering readers new sections on radar interferometry, radar stereo, and planetary radar. It explores new techniques in imaging spectroscopy and large optics used in Earth orbiting, planetary, and astrophysics missions. It also describes remote sensing instruments on, as well as data acquired with, the most recent Earth and space missions. 
Readers will benefit from the brand new and up-to-date concept examples and full-color photography, 50% of which is new to the series. You’ll learn about the basic physics of wave/matter interactions, techniques of remote sensing across the electromagnetic spectrum (from ultraviolet to microwave), and the concepts behind the remote sensing techniques used today and those planned for the future. 
The book also discusses the applications of remote sensing for a wide variety of earth and planetary atmosphere and surface sciences, like geology, oceanography, resource observation, atmospheric sciences, and ionospheric studies. This new edition also incorporates: 
A fulsome introduction to the nature and properties of electromagnetic waves An exploration of sensing solid surfaces in the visible and near infrared spectrums, as well as thermal infrared, microwave, and radio frequencies A treatment of ocean surface sensing, including ocean surface imaging and the mapping of ocean topography A discussion of the basic principles of atmospheric sensing and radiative transfer, including the radiative transfer equation Perfect for senior undergraduate and graduate students in the field of remote sensing instrument development, data analysis, and data utilization, 
 will also earn a place in the libraries of students, faculty, researchers, engineers, and practitioners in fields like aerospace, electrical engineering, and astronomy.

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Figure 216 Transmission spectra of common silicates Source Hunt and - фото 105

Figure 2.16 Transmission spectra of common silicates.

Source : Hunt and Salisbury (1974). © 1974, Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories.

In summary, a remote sensing system can be visualized ( Fig. 2.17) as a source of electromagnetic wave (e.g., the sun, a radio source) which illuminates the object being studied. The incident wave interacts with the object and the scattered wave is modulated by a number of interaction processes which contain the “fingerprints” of the object. In some cases the object itself is the source and the radiated wave contains information about its properties. A part of the scattered or radiated wave is then collected by a collector, focused on a detector, and its properties measured. An inverse process is then used to infer the properties of the object from the measured properties of the received wave.

Table 2.2 Wave‐matter interaction mechanisms across the electromagnetic spectrum.

Spectral region Main interaction mechanisms Examples of remote sensing applications
Gamma‐rays, x‐rays Atomic processes Mapping of radioactive materials
Ultraviolet Electronic processes Presence of H and He in atmospheres
Visible and near infrared Electronic and vibration molecular processes Surface chemical composition, vegetation cover, and biological properties
Mid‐infrared Vibrational, vibrational‐rotational molecular processes Surface chemical composition, atmospheric chemical composition
Thermal infrared Thermal emission, vibrational and rotational processes Surface heat capacity, surface temperature, atmospheric temperature, atmospheric and surface constituents
Microwave Rotational processes, thermal emission, scattering, conduction Atmospheric constituents, surface temperature, surface physical properties, atmospheric precipitation
Radio frequency Scattering, conduction, ionospheric effect Surface physical properties, subsurface sounding, ionospheric sounding
Figure 217 Sketch of key elements of a remote sensing system Exercises 1 - фото 106

Figure 2.17 Sketch of key elements of a remote sensing system.

Exercises

1 2.1 In order to better visualize the relative scale of the waves' wavelength in different regions of the spectrum, assume that the blue wavelength (λ = 0.4 μm) is expanded to the size of a key hole (1 cm). What would be the wavelength size of other spectra regions in terms of familiar objects?

2 2.2 The sun radiant flux density at the top of the earth's atmosphere is 1.37 kilowatts/m2. What is the flux density at Venus (0.7 AU), Mars (1.5 AU), Jupiter (5.2 AU), and Saturn (9.5 AU)? Express these values in kilowatts/m2 and in photons/m2 sec. Assume λ = 0.4 μm for the sun illumination. (Note that AU = astronomical unit = Earth/sun distance.)

3 2.3 Assuming that the sun emittance spectrum follows exactly Planck's formula:with T = 6000 K. Calculate the percent of solar energy in the following spectral regions:In the UV (λ < 0.4 μm)In the visible (0.4 μm < λ < 0.7 μm)In the infrared (0.7 μm < λ < 10 μm)In the thermal infrared and submillimeter (10 μm < λ < 3 mm)In the microwave (λ > 3 mm)

4 2.4 The amplitudes of two coexistent electromagnetic waves are given byDescribe the temporal behavior of the total electric field E = E1 + E2 for the following cases:Repeat the exercise for A = 2B.

5 2.5 The amplitudes of two coexistent electromagnetic waves are given bywhere c is the speed of light in a vacuum. Let ω′ = ω + Δω and Δω ≪ ω. Describe the behavior of the power of the composite wave as a function of P1 and P2 of each individual wave.

6 2.6 A plasma is an example of a dispersive medium. The wavenumber for a plasma is given bywhere c = speed of light and ωp= plasma angular frequency.Calculate and plot the phase and group velocity of a wave in the plasma as a function of frequency.Based on the results of (a), why is a plasma called a dispersive medium?

7 2.7 A radar sensor is carried on an orbiting satellite which is moving at a speed of 7 km/sec parallel to the earth’s surface. The radar beam has a total beam width of θ = 4° and the operating frequency is ν = 1.25 GHz. What is the center frequency and the frequency spread of the echo due to the Doppler shift across the beam for the following cases:a nadir‐looking beama 45° forward‐looking beama 45° back‐looking beam

8 2.8 Repeat Problem 2.7 for the case where the satellite is moving at a velocity of 7 km/sec but at a 5° angle above the horizontal.

9 2.9 Plot and compare the spectral emittance of black bodies with surface temperatures of 6000 K (Sun), 600 K (Venus), 300 K (Earth), 200 K (Mars), and 120 K (Titan). In particular, determine the wavelength for maximum emission for each body.

10 2.10 A small object is emitting Q watts isotropically in space. A collector of area A is located a distance d from the object. How much of the emitted power is being intercepted by the collector? Assuming that Q = 1 kW and d = 1000 km, what size of collector is needed to collect 1 milliwatt and 1 microwatt?

11 2.11 Two coexistent waves are characterized byDescribe the behavior of the total wave E = E1 + E2 for the cases where α = 0, α = π/2, α = π and α a random value with equal probability of occurrence between 0 and 2π.

References and Further Reading

1 Goetz, A., and L. Rowan. Geologic remote sensing. Science, 211, 781–791, 1981.

2 Hunt, R., and W. Salisbury. Mid infrared spectral behavior of igneous rocks. U.S. Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories Report AFCRL‐TR‐74‐0625, 1974.

3 Papas, C. H. Theory of Electromagnetic Wave Propagation. McGraw‐Hill, New York, 1965.

4 Reeves, R. G. (Ed.). Manual of Remote Sensing, Chapters 3, 4, and 5. American Society of Photogrammetry, Falls Church, VA, 1975.

5 Sabins, F. Remote Sensing: Principles and Interpretation. Freeman, San Francisco, 1978.

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