Zainuddin A. Manan - Modeling, Simulation, and Optimization of Supercritical and Subcritical Fluid Extraction Processes

1 Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 A typical P‐T diagram for a pure component. Figure 1.2 An example of phase diagram of pure substance indicating a point ... Figure 1.3 Reduced density–reduced pressure including several reduced temper... Figure 1.4 Relative solvent power and diffusion characteristics of liquids, ... Figure 1.5 Phase diagram of a pure material and the thermodynamic states of ... Figure 1.6 Flow diagram of a separation process. Figure 1.7 Schematic of a SFE process. Figure 1.8 Decaffeination of coffee beans by supercritical CO 2with activate... Figure 1.9 Decaffeination of coffee by supercritical CO 2and absorber. Figure 1.10 Variation of the reduced density of CO 2in the vicinity of criti... Figure 1.11 Solubility of components of homologous series in SC‐CO 2 Figure 1.12 Solubility of palm oil in various SCFs Figure 1.13 Solubility of various SCFs in palm oil Figure 1.14 Selectivity ( K ‐factors) of FFA in palm oil Figure 1.15 Solubility calculation by method of dynamic experimental. Figure 1.16 Molecular structure of 1,1,1,2‐tetrafluoroethane.Figure 1.17 Crossover intersection in plot of solubility versus pressure at ...Figure 1.18 Extraction curves indicates the profile of overall extraction cu...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Conceptual difference among three types of testing.Figure 2.2 Two approaches used in hybrid neural network with first principle...Figure 2.3 Single‐layer perceptron.Figure 2.4 Two‐layer perceptron.Figure 2.5 Common activation functions.Figure 2.6 Layer of S neurons.Figure 2.7 Linearly inseparable problems.Figure 2.8 Multilayer perceptronFigure 2.9 Schematic degrees of membership function for crisp and fuzzy sets...Figure 2.10 Determination of the membership function.Figure 2.11 Membership function types (generated using Matlab software).Figure 2.12 Sugeno‐style rule evaluation.Figure 2.13 Structure of a neuro fuzzy system.Figure 2.14 Structure of ANFIS.Figure 2.15 Global and local optimums.Figure 2.16 Schematic of crossover operation in GA.Figure 2.17 Schematic of the mutation operation in GA.

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Constituents of crude palm oilFigure 3.2 Thermal destruction of β‐caroteneFigure 3.3 Chemical refining – degumming and neutralization steps.Figure 3.4 Chemical refining–bleaching.Figure 3.5 Chemical refining – deodorization.Figure 3.6 Physical refining – degumming and bleaching.Figure 3.7 Physical refining – deacidification (by distillation) and deodori...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 The structure of simple triglycerides.Figure 4.2 Chemical structure of oleic acid (C 17H 33COOH).Figure 4.3 Chemical structure of α‐tocopherol (C 29H 46O 2).Figure 4.4 Chemical structure of β‐carotene (C 40H 56).Figure 4.5 Calculations of T c, P c, and T bfrom V L,20and P sat( T 1)Figure 4.6 Density of coexisting phases for palm oil‐supercritical CO 2syste...Figure 4.7 Density difference between coexisting phases for palm oil‐CO 2sys...Figure 4.8 Loading of oil in CO 2Figure 4.9 Process flow diagram for SFE of palm oil using CO 2.Figure 4.10 Schematic diagram for simple countercurrent SFE process scheme....Figure 4.11 Schematic diagram for countercurrent (with reflux) SFE process s...Figure 4.12 Relative deviation of calculated vapor pressure from experimenta...Figure 4.13 Liquid phase compositions for the tripalmitin – supercritical COFigure 4.14 Fluid phase compositions for the tripalmitin – supercritical CO 2Figure 4.15 Liquid phase compositions for the triolein – supercritical CO 2s...Figure 4.16 Fluid phase compositions for the triolein – supercritical CO 2sy...Figure 4.17 Liquid phase compositions for the oleic acid – supercritical CO 2Figure 4.18 Fluid phase compositions for the oleic acid – supercritical CO 2...Figure 4.19 Liquid phase compositions for the α‐tocopherol – supercritical C...Figure 4.20 Fluid phase compositions for the α‐tocopherol – supercritical COFigure 4.21 Solubility of β‐carotene in supercritical CO 2.Figure 4.22 Phase equilibrium for a pseudo‐ternary CO 2– TG – FFA system at ...Figure 4.23 Predicted distribution coefficients (this work) for palm oil com...Figure 4.24 Experimental distribution coefficientsFigure 4.25 Distribution coefficients of FFA (CO 2‐free basis). Experimental ...Figure 4.26 Distribution coefficients of TG (CO 2‐free basis). Experimental d...Figure 4.27 Separation factor between FFA and palm oil TG in a CPO–CO 2syste...Figure 4.28 Comparison between the experiment data of Stoldt and Brunner (19...Figure 4.29 Effect of temperature and pressure on the solubility of palm oil...Figure 4.30 Effect of pressure on the yield of raffinate and solubility of p...Figure 4.31 Countercurrent SFE of CPO (without reflux): experimental of Gast...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Schematic of element in SFEFigure 5.2 Membership functions for process variables.Figure 5.3 Membership functions of (a) Solvent flow rate, (b) Pressure, and ...Figure 5.4 Extraction from Anise‐comparison between NF model results (‐‐) an...Figure 5.5 Extraction from Anise‐comparison between GB model results (‐‐) an...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Extraction yield of palm oil as a function of pressure and temper...Figure 6.2 Pareto chart indicating the significant level for each parameter....Figure 6.3 Comparison of extraction performance between supercritical CO 2an...Figure 6.4 Comparison of palm oil solubility in terms of reduced pressure.Figure 6.5 Comparison of extraction performance between supercritical CO 2an...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Investigated pressure–temperature range for countercurrent SFE pr...Figure 7.2 Effect of the number of stages on the recovery of FFA.Figure 7.3 Effect of the number of stages on the recovery of refined palm oi...Figure 7.4 Effect of S/F ratio on the %FFA in the extract and raffinate.Figure 7.5 Effect of S/F ratio on the raffinate recovery.Figure 7.6 Effect of reflux ratio on the composition of the top and bottom p...Figure 7.7 Effect of reflux ratio on the recovery of palm oil (S/F ratio of ...Figure 7.8 Flowsheet of the countercurrent SFE process for palm oil refining...Figure 7.9 Influence of temperature and pressure on the extraction yield at Figure 7.10 Influence of mass flow rate on the optimum temperature at L = 0....Figure 7.11 Influence of mass flow rate on the optimum pressure at L = 0.165...Figure 7.12 Schematic diagram of supercritical CO 2extraction system.Figure 7.13 Sensitivity analysis of the profit.Figure 7.14 Effect of temperature and pressure on the extraction yield at L ...Figure 7.15 Effect of mass flow rate on the optimum temperature at L = 0.165...Figure 7.16 Influence of mass flow rate on the optimum pressure at L = 0.165...Figure 7.17 Three‐dimensional plot of oil yield as a function of temperature...Figure 7.18 Effect of temperature and extraction cycle on the oil yield (con...

8 Appendix BFigure B.1 Calculated liquid‐phase and supercritical fluid‐phase composition...

9 Appendix CFigure C.1 Flash calculation results at 24 MPa and 50 °C.

1 Cover Page

2 Title Page

3 Copyright Page

4 Preface

5 Nomenclature

6 Table of Contents

7 Begin Reading

8 Appendix A Calculation of the Composition for Palm Oil TG (Lim et al. 2003 )

9 Appendix B Calculation of Distribution Coefficient and Separation Factor (Lim et al. 2003 )

10 Appendix C Calculation of Palm Oil Solubility in Supercritical CO2 (Lim et al. 2003 )

11 References

12 Index

13 Wiley End User License Agreement

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