Bruce Bagemihl - Biological Exuberance

*asterisked references discuss homosexuality/transgender

*Bernstein, I. S. (1972) “Daily Activity Cycles and Weather Influences on a Pigtail Monkey Group.” Folia Primatologica 18:390-415.

*———(1970) “Primate Status Hierarchies.” In L. A. Rosenblum, ed., Primate Behavior: Developments in Field and Laboratory Research , vol.1, pp. 71—109. New York: Academic Press.

*———(1967) “A Field Study of the Pigtail Macaque (Macaca nemestrina).” Primates 8:217-28.

Bernstein, I. S., and S. C. Baker (1988) “Activity Patterns in a Captive Group of Celebes BlackApes (Macaca nigra).” Folia Primatologica 51:61-75.

*Bound, V., H. Shewman, and J. Sievert (1988) “The Successful Introduction of Five Male Lion-tailed Macaques (Macaca silenus) at Woodland Park Zoo.” In AAZPA Regional Conference Proceedings, pp. 122-31. Wheeling, W.Va.: American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums.

*Caldecott, J. 0. (1986) An Ecological and Behavioral Study of the Pig-Tailed Macaque. Basel: Karger.

*Dixson, A. F. (1977) “Observations of the Displays, Menstrual Cycles, and Sexual Behavior of the ‘Black Ape’ of Celebes (Macaca nigra).” Journal of Zoology, London 182:63-84.

*Giacoma, C., and P. Messeri (1992) “Attributes and Validity of Dominance Hierarchy in the Female Pigtail Macaque.” Primates 33:181-89.

*Kaufman, I. C., and L. A. Rosenblum (1966) “A Behavioral Taxonomy for Macaca nemestrina and Macaca radiata : Based on Longitudinal Observation of Family Groups in the Laboratory.” Primates 7:205—58.

Kyes, R. C., R. E. Rumawas, E. Sulistiawati, and N. Budiarsa (1995) “Infanticide in a Captive Group of Pigtailed Macaques (Macaca nemestrina):” American Journal of Primatology 36:135-36.

Maestripieri, D., K. Wallen, and K. A. Carroll (1997) “Infant Abuse Runs in Families of Group-Living Pigtail Macaques.” Child Abuse e’r Neglect 21:465—71.

*Matsumura, S., and K. Okamoto (1998) “Frequent Harassment of Mounting After a Takeover of a Group of Moor Macaques (Macaca maurus).” Primates 39:225—30.

*Nickelson, S. A., and J. S. Lockard (1978) “Ethogram of Celebes Monkeys (Macaca nigra) in Two Captive Habitats.” Primates 19:437—47.

Oi, T. (1996) “Sexual Behavior and Mating System of the Wild Pig-tailed Macaque in West Sumatra.” In J. E. Fa and D. G. Lindburg, eds., Evolution and Ecology of Macaque Societies , pp. 342—68. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

*———(1991) “Non-copulatory Mounting of Wild Pig-tailed Macaques (Macaca nemestrina nemestrina) in West Sumatra, Indonesia.” In A. Ehara, T. Kimura, O. Takenaka, and M. Iwamoto, eds., Primatology Today , pp. 147—50. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers.

*———(1990a) “Patterns of Dominance and Affiliation in Wild Pig-tailed Macaques (Macaca nemestrina nemestrina) in West Sumatra.” International Journal of Primatology 11:339—55.

———(1990b) “Population Organization of Wild Pig-tailed Macaques (Macaca nemestrina nemestrina) in West Sumatra.” Primates 31:15—31.

*Poirier, F. E. (1964) “The Communicative Matrix of the Celebes Ape (Cynopithecus niger): A Study of Sixteen Male Laboratory Animals.” Master’s thesis, University of Oregon.

*Reed, C. (1997) Personal communication.

*Reed, C., T. G. O’Brien, and M. F. Kinnaird (1997) “Male Social Behavior and Dominance Hierarchy in the Sulawesi Crested Black Macaque (Macaca nigra).” International Journal of Primatology 1 8:247—60.

Schiller, H. S., G. P. Sackett, W. T. Frederickson, and L. J. Risler (1983) “Maintenance of High-density Lipoprotein Blood Levels Prior to Spontaneous Abortion in Pig-tailed Macaques (Macaca nemestrina).” American Journal of Primatology 4:127—33.

*Skinner, S. W, and J. S. Lochard (1979) “An Ethogram of the Liontail Macaque (Macaca silenus) in Captivity.” Applied Animal Ethology 5:241-53.

*Thierry, B. (1986) “Affiliative Interference in Mounts in a Group of Tonkean Macaques (Macaca tonkeana).” American Journal of Primatology 11:89—97.

*Tokuda, K., R. C. Simons, and G. D. Jensen (1968) “Sexual Behavior in a Captive Group of Pigtailed Monkeys (Macaca nemestrina).” Primates 9:283—94.

IDENTIFICATION: The familiar baboon, with variable coat color (greenish to yellowish brown to grayish black), doglike head with a black face, and long tail (over 2 feet in males). DISTRIBUTION: Equatorial, eastern, and southern Africa. HABITAT: Scrub, savanna, woodland. STUDY AREAS: Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania; Ishasha Forest and Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda; Amboseli National Park, and near Gilgil and the Athi River, Kenya; Cape of Good Hope Nature Reserve, South Africa; Namibia; subspecies P.c. anubis, the Olive Baboon; P.c. ursinus, the Chacma Baboon; and P.c. cynocephalus, the Yellow Baboon.

IDENTIFICATION: A gray baboon with a striking silver-gray “cape” or shoulder mane in adult males. DISTRIBUTION: Somalia, Ethiopia, southern Saudi Arabia, Yemen. HABITAT: Semidesert, steppe, savanna woodlands, rocky terrain. STUDY AREAS: Erer-Gota region, eastern Ethiopia; Brookfield (Illinois) and London Zoos.

IDENTIFICATION: A brown baboon with a thick “cape” of fur in adult males; both sexes have an hourglass-shaped patch of bare skin on the chest, encircled by fleshy “beads” in estrous females. DISTRIBUTION: Northern and central Ethiopia. HABITAT: Mountain grasslands, rocky gorges. STUDY AREAS: Simien Mountain National Park, Ethiopia; Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, Georgia; San Antonio Zoo, Texas.

Savanna Baboons live in groups of 30—100 containing both adult males and females. Females form the matriarchal core of each group since they remain for life, whereas males often emigrate to a new group on reaching adulthood. However, some troops are strongly inbred because individuals rarely leave. In contrast, both Gelada and Hamadryas Baboons live in large troops that include so-called HAREM groups—bands that have a single male and several females. In Geladas, the primary social bonds are between the females in such groups (most of whom are related to each other, as in Savanna Baboons), whereas in Hamadryas Baboons the primary bonds are between the male and the females. Unlike many other primates, Hamadryas females emigrate from the group while males remain (hence, most of the females in a group are not related to each other). Geladas also have “bachelor” troops of nonbreeding males, and “bachelor” Hamadryas or Gelada males sometimes associate with a harem group and may develop a close relationship with its male leader.

Behavioral Expression :Homosexual mounting among both males and females occurs in all three of these Baboon species. The position used is similar to that for heterosexual copulation: the mounting animal places its hands on the mountee’s lower back and clasps the mountee’s ankles or thighs with its feet. Both sexes often make pelvic thrusts during homosexual mounts; males usually have an erection, and ejaculation does occur in at least some Savanna Baboon mounts between males. Male Savanna Baboons also sometimes fondle their own or their partner’s genitals during a same-sex mount, and male mounters may gently bite or nuzzle their partner’s neck after a homosexual mount. Male Geladas have also been observed masturbating other males. Females of these species mount each other both during “heat” and outside of their sexual cycle; about 9 percent of lesbian mounts in Savanna Baboons involve a pregnant female mounting another female. Because most Savanna and Gelada females are related to the other females in a troop, at least some homosexual activity is incestuous.