M. R. Islam - Economically and Environmentally Sustainable Enhanced Oil Recovery

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Reservoir images; (a) natural setting; (b) dual-porosity modeling...Figure 5.2 The knowledge model: The abstraction process must be bottom up.Figure 5.3 Schematic cross-sections of borehole breakout and drilling-induce...Figure 5.4 Onshore map of distribution of wells logged with borehole imaging...Figure 5.5 Comparison of resistivity images visualising Drilling Induced ten...Figure 5.6 Comparison of methods of visualizing a 4 m long borehole breakout...Figure 5.7 Section of resistivity images visualizing 3 distinct borehole bre...Figure 5.8 Total SHmax orientation from borehole breakouts from two differen...Figure 5.9 Rose diagrams comparing stress field orientations from this study...Figure 5.10 Map highlighting orientations of SHmax derived from breakouts ob...Figure 5.11 Map highlighting orientations of S Hmaxderived from breakouts ob...Figure 5.12 Map highlighting orientations of S Hmaxderived from breakouts ob...Figure 5.13 Diagram of fractures radius and dip angle for the generated subs...Figure 5.14 Schematic representation of reservoir pressure (Top) after (a) 1...Figure 5.15 The different steps used in optimizing the subsurface fracture m...Figure 5.16 Plot of fracture intensity versus mean square permeability (from...Figure 5.17 Pressure change and pressure derivatives after inversion at well...Figure 5.18 Reconstructing fracture history.Picture 5.1 Surface fractures (Akbar et al ., 1993).Figure 5.19 The fracture orientations commonly found in the Middle East (Mah...Figure 5.20 Different types of fractures. (a) intercrystal fractures; (b) un...Figure 5.21 Illustration of the fracture sets in: a folded environment with ...Figure 5.22 Illustration of the fracture sets in a reference environment (fr...Figure 5.23 Schematic of the two zones on the Earth’s crustal region.Figure 5.24 Variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fracture den...Figure 5.25 Variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fracture den...Figure 5.26 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.27 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.28 Variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fracture den...Figure 5.29 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.30 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.31 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.32 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.33 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.34 Range of variation in anisotropic parameter as a function of fra...Figure 5.35 Depiction of Warren and Root model .Figure 5.36 Schematic of mud flow in a tight formation with fractures (after...Figure 5.37 Data from a well drilled overbalanced until a certain depth and ...Figure 5.38 Mud log data from a portion of a well drilled underbalanced in t...Figure 5.39 Schematic of the model used by Norbeck (2012).Figure 5.40 Locations of conductive natural fractures along the lateral of W...Figure 5.41 Cross-plot of mud pit volume peak vs. gas peak corresponding to ...Figure 5.42 Locations of conductive natural fractures along the lateral of W...Figure 5.43 Cross-plot of mud pit volume peak vs. gas peak corresponding to ...Figure 5.44 Plan view of Field A. Wells A-1 and A-2 are parallel wells drill...Figure 5.45 Natural fracture system orientation #1 for Field A. A dominant p...Figure 5.46 REV in fractured reservoirs is greater than core size (redrawn f...Picture 5.2 (a) Example of borehole breakout taken by a downhole camera. (b)...Figure 5.47 Comparison of methods of visualizing a 4 m long borehole breakou...Figure 5.48 Comparison of resistivity images visualizing Drilling Induced te...Figure 5.49 Example of an AFIT image log. The horizontal axis is azimuth aro...Picture 5.3 Micro logger.Figure 5.50 These figures illustrate the concept that critically stressed na...Figure 5.51 Processing flow chart of density and acoustic well logging data ...Figure 5.52 Processing flow chart for fracture analyses from well logging.Figure 5.53 Temperature profile shows the existence of a fractured zone (red...Figure 5.54 Fracture signatures from geophysical logs (from Batini et al ., 2...Figure 5.55 Fracture analysis from CBIL (from Batini et al ., 2002).Figure 5.56 Fracture asset mapped as pole density (from Batini et al ., 2002)...Figure 5.57 Core permeability vs. core porosity for a heterogeneous formatio...Figure 5.58 Developing filter out of NMR data.Figure 5.59 Filter for Well “A” (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.60 Filter for “Well B” (Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.61 Filter for “Well C” (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.62 Correlation between core permeability and core porosity (from Ha...Figure 5.63 Correlation between pereambility and BG (from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.64 Correlation of permeability vs. S gx0(from Hamada, 2009).Figure 5.65 Permeability distribution (track 6) for Well “A” (from Hamada, 2...Figure 5.66 Permeability distribution (track 6) for Well “B” (from Hamada, 2...Figure 5.67 Permeability distribution (track 6) for Well “C” (from Hamada, 2...Figure 5.68 Correlation between core Pc (blue dots) and NMR Pc (pink line) (...Figure 5.69 Typical relative permeability (y-axis) and capillary pressure cu...Figure 5.70 Representation of the relationships of the relationships between...Figure 5.71 Porosity is only slightly affected by net stress for carbonate f...Figure 5.72 Porosity variation with effective stress (after Okiongbo, 2011)....Figure 5.73 Effect of geological age on porosity (from Ehrenberg et al ., 200...Figure 5.74 Porosity variation under net overburden conditions (from Petrowi...Figure 5.75 Effect of overburden stress on matrix and fracture permeability ...Figure 5.76 General trend of N cvs. residual saturation.Figure 5.77 Several correlations between capillary number and residual oil s...Figure 5.78 General trend of breakthrough recovery and instability number.Figure 5.79 Instability number vs. breakthrough recovery for immiscible gas ...Figure 5.80 Correlation of mobility ratio with oil recovery for waterflood (...Figure 5.81 Correlation between breakthrough recovery and Peters-Flock stabi...Figure 5.82 There is no correlation between capillary number and water break...Picture 5.4 Viscous fingering in a miscible displacement process.Figure 5.83 Typical CO 2WAG process.Figure 5.84 Breakthrough recovery vs. instability number for miscible flood....Figure 5.85 End-point relative permeability correlates with residual oil sat...Figure 5.86 Relative permeability curves are altered by lowering of interfac...Figure 5.87 Permeability jail can be removed with thermal or chemical altera...Picture 5.5 Outcrops often show how fractures must be prevalent in consolida...Picture 5.6 Thin section photomicrographs of sandstones illustrating A, occu...Picture 5.7 Thin section photomicrographs of sandstones depicting A, open (n...Picture 5.8 Slabbed sandstone displaying reticulated fracture network on wet...Figure 5.88 Critical gas saturation for various permeability values of a gas...Figure 5.89 Permeability vs. porosity correlation depends largely on the nat...Figure 5.90 Correlation of porosity vs. permeability for various types of fo...Figure 5.91 Improvement factor due to open fractures.Figure 5.92 The effect of fractures on k v/k h.Figure 5.93 Pore size can be affected by fracture distribution and thereby i...Picture 5.9 Commercial softwares can help identify fractures in FMS logs.Figure 5.94 Rose diagram helps quantify the role of fractures.Figure 5.95 Transiting from macro-pore scale to an initial reservoir model, ...Figure 5.96 REV for a reservoir is much larger than the core samples collect...Picture 5.10 The idea is to transit from microscopic to reservoir scale, fol...Figure 5.97 Laboratory test results under an overburden pressure of 50 MPa....Figure 5.98 Determination of the nature of fractures from hk data.Figure 5.99 Flow chart for Poisson’s ratio determination.Picture 5.11 Different scenarios in fractured shale formation (from Islam et ...Figure 5.100 Flow chart for Young’s modulus determination.