A Dictionary of British and Irish History

In NORTHERN IRELAND, abortion was permitted from 1945 if a mother’s life was at risk. In 2017–18 there were 44 legal abortions. In July 2019, while Northern Ireland’s devolved ASSEMBLY and EXECUTIVE were suspended, the UK Parliament decriminalized abortion in Northern Ireland and required regulations for abortion to be implemented by April 2020. See also CHURCH–STATE RELATIONS, SOUTHERN IRELAND FROM 1922; WOMEN’S MOVEMENT FROM 1960S, IRELAND.

ABRAHAM, WILLIAMsee MABON ABSOLUTISM

A form of government in which a ruler theoretically has unlimited power. European monarchies developed in this direction in the 16th–18th centuries. Certain features were considered characteristics of absolutism: a standing army, a compliant bureaucracy, the capacity to levy taxes without legislative approval, and the ability to pursue policies without consent from representative institutions.

In England such features were most apparent in the reigns of CHARLES I (1625–49) and JAMES VII/II (1685–8), and to a lesser extent in the reign of CHARLES II (1660–85). But these kings were restrained by a relatively strong legal and political culture. The increased strength of Parliament, resulting from the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION, ended absolutist developments. See also BALANCED CONSTITUTION; CHARLES I, PERSONAL RULE; STANDING ARMY, ENGLAND; KINGSHIP AND MONARCHY, ENGLAND 1066 TO 1680S.

ACADEMIES OF ARTA Royal Academy of Arts was founded in England in 1768 to raise the status of art and artists. Located in London, its first patron was King GEORGE III. The first president was Joshua REYNOLDS. It has run a school and has held an annual summer exhibition since 1769. A Royal Hibernian Academy was founded in Ireland in 1823 (in Dublin), and a Scottish Academy in 1826 (in Edinburgh; granted royal charter 1838). See also VISUAL ARTS, BRITAIN/IRELAND. ACRE, FALL OFThe capture, on 18 May 1291, of the most important remaining Latin (or European) stronghold in Syria by Muslim forces under al‐Ashraf, sultan of Egypt. It led to the evacuation of the remaining Christian forts in the Middle East, effectively ending two centuries of European crusading involvement in the Holy Land. See also CRUSADES. ACT OF UNIONsee UNION OF WALES WITH ENGLAND ACT RECISSORYAn Act passed by the Scottish Parliament on 28 March 1661 repealing most Acts since 1633. (Recissory means ‘revoking'.) It thus abolished all public legislation, religious and secular, introduced by the Covenanting regime (1638–50), thereby restoring royal authority and the institutional structure of the early 17th century. See also COVENANTING REVOLUTION; RESTORATION, SCOTLAND. ADAMS, GERRY

(b. 6 Oct. 1948 at Belfast, Northern Ireland). Reputedly a leading member of the PROVISIONAL IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY (PIRA) in NORTHERN IRELAND in the early 1970s, Adams was interned (imprisoned without trial) in 1972, 1973–6, and imprisoned in 1978. He helped to organize the 1981 HUNGER STRIKES which encouraged PROVISIONAL SINN FÉIN (PSF) to exploit electoral politics alongside violent activity. In 1982 Adams was elected for PSF to the new ASSEMBLY (abstained). From 1983 to 2018 he was president of PSF.

From 1988 Adams engaged with John HUME in secret discussions about achieving Irish nationalist ambitions (principally a united Ireland). Their joint statement (24 April 1993) and report to the Irish taoiseach (premier) encouraged a PEACE PROCESS. From Sept. 1997, following a second PIRA ceasefire, Adams participated in the multi‐party talks that culminated in the BELFAST AGREEMENT (1998). He was a member of another Assembly (1998–2010), and PSF participated in multi‐party EXECUTIVES (1999–2002, 2007–17). Adams was also an abstentionist member of the UK Parliament 1983–92, 1997–2011. From 2011 to 2020 he sat in the Dáil of the Republic of Ireland. See also TROUBLES; MC GUINNESS, MARTIN.

ADDINGTON, HENRY

(b. 30 May 1757 at London, England; d. 15 Feb. 1844 at Richmond, Surrey, England, aged 86). A doctor’s son and childhood friend of William PITT the Younger, Addington became an MP in 1784 and served as speaker of the House of Commons from 1789. An opponent of CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, he was chosen by King GEORGE III to replace Pitt as PRIME MINISTER (first lord of the Treasury) in March 1801, during the NAPOLEONIC WARS. Addington’s ministry negotiated the Peace of AMIENS with France (March 1802) but proved inadequate when war resumed (May 1803). The ministry collapsed in April 1804. Pitt resumed office.

Addington was created Viscount Sidmouth in 1805. He held posts in the ministries of Pitt (1805) and Lord GRENVILLE (1806–7), and was home secretary 1812–21 (under Lord LIVERPOOL), a period of social unrest. Sidmouth took harsh action against LUDDITES and introduced the repressive SIX ACTS (1819).

ADDLED PARLIAMENTIn England, the PARLIAMENT convened in 1614 by King JAMES VI/I who sought taxes to pay off debts. It met on 5 April and was dissolved on 7 June. As in the 1610 Parliament, opposition to IMPOSITIONS prevented agreement. It was nicknamed ‘Addled’ because, like an addled egg that produces no chicken, it failed to pass any Bills. ADEN AND ADEN PROTECTORATE

Former British territories in S Arabia. In 1839 the EAST INDIA COMPANY annexed the town of Aden, near the Red Sea; islands and other lands were later included. A coaling station for ships, Aden became especially important after the opening of the SUEZ CANAL (1869).

After 1839, informal agreements were made with rulers in Aden’s eastern hinterland, and from 1886 to 1954 Great Britain made formal treaties, creating the so‐called Aden Protectorate. Administration of the territories was transferred from India to London in 1917. Aden itself became a CROWN COLONY in 1937.

In 1959 some rulers in the protectorate formed the ‘Federation of Arab Emirates of the South’ (renamed Federation of South Arabia in 1962). Aden, under British sovereignty, joined the Federation in 1963; protected territories outside the Federation became the Protectorate of South Arabia. But from 1965 civil war spread into the FSA from North Yemen, and 129 British troops were killed (1965–7). Britain withdrew in Nov. 1967, whereupon the FSA and protectorate became the People’s Republic of South Yemen. See also BRITISH SOMALILAND.

ADOMNÁN(b. 627 or 628 in N Ireland; d. 23 Sept. 704 on Iona, Scottish Dál Riata, aged 76). In 679 Adomnán became ninth abbot of IONA (off Mull, W of Scotland, in the kingdom of DÁL RIATA), chosen probably for both learning and kinship with its founder Colum Cille (or COLUMBA). After his friend Aldfrith became king of NORTHUMBRIA, Adomnán rescued Irish captives from Northumbria (687). According to BEDE, Adomnán accepted the Roman timing of Easter from Northumbria and persuaded many Irish churches to adopt it, but not his own Ionan monasteries. In 697 Adomnán supported the adoption in Ireland of the ‘Law of Innocents’, which protected women, children and clergy in warfare. Adomnán wrote a Life of Columba and was venerated as a saint. See also EASTER CONTROVERSY. ADRIAN IV(b. c.1100 at Abbot's Langley, Hertfordshire, England; d. 1 Sept. 1159 at Anagni, Italy, aged about 59). Nicholas Breakspear, an abbot in France, was created a cardinal in 1149. After serving as papal legate in Scandinavia (1152–4), he was elected Pope (Dec. 1154) – the only Englishman to hold the office. He allegedly issued the bull LAUDABILITER , sanctioning involvement in Ireland by HENRY II. ADULLAMITESNickname of a WHIG faction in the UK Parliament which resisted any significant widening of the electorate, 1866–7, viewing it as a transfer of power to the ignorant. John BRIGHT likened their leader, Robert LOWE, to King David calling the discontented into the cave of Adullam (a reference to the Bible, 1 Samuel 22: 1–2). The Adullamites’ opposition to PARLIAMENTARY REFORM caused the fall of Lord John RUSSELL’s Liberal government in 1866. ADVENTURERS, ACT FORAct of the English Parliament, passed 19 March 1642, to pay for suppression of Irish rebels (see IRISH WARS, 1641–52). It offered financial investors (‘Adventurers') land which would be confiscated from rebels (total 2.5 million acres; 1 million ha). One‐third of the target £1 million was raised. Land was allocated from 1654 (see CROMWELLIAN LAND SETTLEMENT). ADVERTISING