Space Physics and Aeronomy, Ionosphere Dynamics and Applications

1 Cover

2 Series Page

3 Title Page

4 Copyright Page

5 List of Contributors

6 Preface

7 Part I: The Polar Cap and Auroral Ionosphere 1 Magnetospheric Energy Input to the Ionosphere 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 ENERGY ENTERING THE IONOSPHERE‐THERMOSPHERE (IT) SYSTEM 1.3 GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS (GCMS) OF MIT COUPLING 1.4 MODEL ASSESSMENT 1.5 JOULE HEATING 1.6 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 1.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 2 High Latitude Ionospheric Convection 2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 THE MAGNETOSPHERE‐IONOSPHERE SYSTEM 2.3 STEADY‐STATE MAGNETOSPHERIC/IONOSPHERIC CONVECTION 2.4 TIME‐DEPENDENT CONVECTION 2.5 FURTHER READING ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 3 Multiscale Dynamics in the High‐Latitude Ionosphere 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 CUSP 3.3 POLAR CAP 3.4 NIGHTSIDE AURORAL OVAL 3.5 CROSS‐REGIONAL AND GLOBAL INTERACTION PROCESSES 3.6 SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 4 Recent Advances in Polar Cap Density Structure Research 4.1 INTRODUCTION TO POLAR CAP DENSITY STRUCTURES 4.2 STATISTICAL OCCURRENCE RATE OF POLAR CAP PATCHES 4.3 PLASMA CHARACTERISTICS WITHIN THE POLAR CAP PATCHES 4.4 DYNAMIC EVOLUTION OF POLAR CAP PATCHES 4.5 ION UPFLOW ASSOCIATED WITH POLAR CAP HIGH‐DENSITY STRUCTURES 4.6 OPTICAL EMISSION MECHANISMS AND VARIABILITY OF POLAR CAP PATCHES 4.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 5 Polar Cap O +Ion Outflow and Its Impact on Magnetospheric Dynamics 5.1 POLAR CAP ION OUTFLOW 5.2 IMPACTS OF ION OUTFLOW ON MAGNETOSPHERIC DYNAMICS 5.3 OUTSTANDING QUESTIONS REFERENCES

8 Part II: The Subauroral and Midlatitude Ionosphere 6 Ionospheric Storm‐Enhanced Density Plumes 6.1 REVIEW OF IONOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS OF STORM‐ENHANCED DENSITY 6.2 SED CHARACTERISTICS 6.3 SED FORMATION PROCESSES 6.4 SED PLASMA IN THE CUSP AND MAGNETOSPHERE 6.5 SUMMARY AND CURRENT STATUS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 7 Ion Outflow and Lobe Density: Interhemispheric Asymmetries 7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 ESTIMATING PLASMA DENSITY FROM SPACECRAFT POTENTIAL 7.3 OBSERVATIONS AND DATA SET CHARACTERISTICS 7.4 NORTH‐SOUTH ASYMMETRIES 7.5 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 8 Mesoscale and Small‐Scale Structure of the Subauroral Geospace 8.1 INTRODUCTION 8.2 TURBULENT PLASMASPHERE BOUNDARY LAYER 8.3 IONOSPHERIC STRUCTURES 8.4 DISCUSSION 8.5 CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES APPENDIX

9 Part III: The Low‐Latitude Ionosphere 9 Equatorial Ionospheric Electrodynamics 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES 9.3 QUIET‐TIME EQUATORIAL PLASMA DRIFTS 9.4 STORM‐TIME EQUATORIAL ELECTRIC FIELDS 9.5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 10 Theory and Modeling of Equatorial Spread F 10.1 INTRODUCTION 10.2 THEORY 10.3 MODELING 10.4 NEW FINDINGS 10.5 SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 11 Observations of Equatorial Spread F : A Working Hypothesis 11.1 INTRODUCTION 11.2 SOURCES, SEEDING, DRIVERS, AND LOADING 11.3 CLIMATOLOGY OF ESF 11.4 DAY‐TO‐DAY VARIABILITY OF ESF 11.5 WHAT ABOUT LOW SOLAR ACTIVITY? 11.6 DISCUSSION 11.7 OUTSTANDING QUESTIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 12 The Equatorial Electrojet 12.1 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS 12.2 MAGNETIC SIGNATURES AND CURRENT DENSITY PROFILES 12.3 ELECTRODYNAMICS DESCRIPTION AND MODELING OF THE EEJ 12.4 CLIMATOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EEJ 12.5 TIDAL FEATURES OF THE EEJ 12.6 THE COUNTER‐ELECTROJET 12.7 SUMMARY AND OPEN ISSUES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 13 Equatorial Ionization Anomaly Variations During Geomagnetic Storms 13.1 INTRODUCTION 13.2 MAJOR MECHANISMS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE EQUATORIAL IONOSPHERIC RESPONSE TO THE MAGNETIC STORMS 13.3 VARIATIONS OF THE IONOSPHERIC STORM EFFECTS IN THE EQUATORIAL AND LOW LATITUDE REGIONS 13.4 CHALLENGES AND UNSOLVED ISSUES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

10 Part IV: Global Ionospheric Processes 14 Penetration of the Magnetospheric Electric Fields to the Low Latitude Ionosphere 14.1 TECHNIQUES TO OBSERVE THE PENETRATION ELECTRIC FIELD 14.2 CONVECTION AND SHIELDING ELECTRIC FIELDS 14.3 PENETRATION OF ELECTRIC FIELDS DURING SUBSTORMS 14.4 PENETRATION OF ELECTRIC FIELDS DURING GEOMAGNETIC STORMS 14.5 TRANSMISSION MECHANISM 14.6 SUMMARY AND ISSUES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 15 Ionosphere and Thermosphere Coupling at Mid‐ and Subauroral Latitudes 15.1 INTRODUCTION 15.2 IONOSPHERIC RESPONSES TO THERMOSPHERIC NEUTRAL WINDS 15.3 THERMOSPHERIC VARIATIONS DRIVEN BY IONOSPHERIC DYNAMICS 15.4 INFLUENCES FROM BELOW 15.5 SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES 16 Sudden Stratospheric Warming Impacts on the Ionosphere–Thermosphere System: A Review of Recent Progress 16.1 INTRODUCTION 16.2 SUDDEN STRATOSPHERIC WARMING EVENTS 16.3 SSW EFFECTS ON THE THERMOSPHERE 16.4 IONOSPHERIC RESPONSE 16.5 NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS 16.6 OUTSTANDING ISSUES AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES 17 Ionospheric Dynamics and Their Strong Longitudinal Dependences 17.1 INTRODUCTION 17.2 MID‐LATITUDE IONOSPHERE STRUCTURES 17.3 GLOBAL EQUATORIAL IONOSPHERE DYNAMICS AND STRUCTURES 17.4 LONGITUDINAL DEPENDENCE OF VERTICAL DRIFT 17.5 SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 18 Medium‐Scale Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances 18.1 INTRODUCTION 18.2 ELECTRIFIED MEDIUM‐SCALE TRAVELING IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES 18.3 MSTIDS INDUCED BY UPWARD‐PROPAGATING GRAVITY WAVES 18.4 DISCUSSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

11 Part V: Ionospheric Impacts on Applications 19 Ionospheric Effects on HF Radio Wave Propagation 19.1 INTRODUCTION 19.2 HF PROPAGATION IN THE UNDISTURBED IONOSPHERE 19.3 EFFECTS OF IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES ON HF INSTRUMENTS 19.4 SPORADIC‐E 19.5 SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 20 Ionospheric Scintillation Effects on Satellite Navigation 20.1 INTRODUCTION 20.2 NAVIGATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE CRITERIA 20.3 STAND‐ALONE GNSS STANDARD POSITIONING SERVICE 20.4 SATELLITE‐BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS (SBAS) 20.5 GROUND‐BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS (GBAS) 20.6 FINAL COMMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 21 Ionospheric Disturbances Related to Earthquakes 21.1 INTRODUCTION 21.2 GNSS‐TEC OBSERVATIONS 21.3 COSEISMIC IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES 21.4 PRESEISMIC IONOSPHERIC ANOMALIES 21.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 22 Atmospheric and Ionospheric Disturbances Caused by Tsunamis 22.1 INTRODUCTION 22.2 ACOUSTIC‐GRAVITY WAVE THEORY 22.3 ATMOSPHERIC WAVE GENERATION BY TSUNAMIS 22.4 TID AND AIRGLOW DISTURBANCE THEORY 22.5 TID AND AIRGLOW DISTURBANCE OBSERVATIONS 22.6 GRAVITY WAVE‐TID MODELING 22.7 OUTSTANDING ISSUES: CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 22.8 SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

12 Index

13 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 5 Table 5.1 List of Controlled Simulations With Varying α (Different Hemisp...

2 Chapter 7Table 7.1 Criteria Used to Experimentally Define the Magnetotail Lobe RegionsTable 7.2 Median Plasma Densities, Their Standard Errors, and Auxiliary Param...

3 Chapter 11Table 11.1 ESF/EPB: Chronology of Key FindingsTable 11.2 Stations (Acronyms) and Coordinates Listed According to Increasing...Table 11.3 Zonal Scale‐Sizes of Upwellings, Patches, ClustersTable 11.4 ESF/EPB Climatology: Satellite MeasurementsTable 11.5 Radar Locations Used for PMN Obsevations

4 Chapter 20Table 20.1 GPS‐based navigation system performance standards.

5 Chapter 22Table 22.1 Summary of TID Observations related to the Tohoku Event. Speed and...

1 Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Solar power, particle power, and Joule power from 1975–2003 Figure 1.2 (a)–(i) Polar cap electric potentials in the Northern Hemisphere,... Figure 1.3 (a)–(i) Magnetic Euler potentials in the Northern Hemisphere, map... Figure 1.4 Comparison between observed Poynting flux from DMSP (a)–(c) with ... Figure 1.5 Cosgrove14 output for high and low magnetic activity for northwar... Figure 1.6 (a)–(b) Values of Pedersen ( ∑ P) and (c)–(d) Hall ( ∑ H)... Figure 1.7 Summary of integrated values over auroral passes for event 1, on ... Figure 1.8 Summary of integrated values over auroral passes for event 6, on ...