Pascal Ribéreau-Gayon - Handbook of Enology, Volume 2

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As an applied science, Enology is a collection of knowledge from the fundamental sciences including chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, bioengineering, psychophysics, cognitive psychology, etc., and nourished by empirical observations. The approach used in the
is thus the same. It aims to provide practitioners, winemakers, technicians and enology students with foundational knowledge and the most recent research results. This knowledge can be used to contribute to a better definition of the quality of grapes and wine, a greater understanding of chemical and microbiological parameters, with the aim of ensuring satisfactory fermentations and predicting the evolution of wines, and better mastery of wine stabilization processes. As a result, the purpose of this publication is to guide readers in their thought processes with a view to preserving and optimizing the identity and taste of wine and its aging potential.
This third English edition of
, is an enhanced translation from the 7th French 2017 edition, and is published as a two-volume set describing aspects of winemaking using a detailed, scientific approach. The authors, who are highly-respected enologists, examine winemaking processes, theorizing what constitutes a perfect technique and the proper combination of components necessary to produce a quality vintage. They also illustrate methodologies of common problems, revealing the mechanism behind the disorder, thus enabling a diagnosis and solution.
Volume 2:
The Chemistry of Wine and Stabilization and Treatments Coverage includes: Wine chemistry; Organic acids; Alcohols and other volatile products; Carbohydrates; Dry extract and mineral matter; Nitrogen substances; Phenolic compounds; The aroma of grape varieties; The chemical nature, origin and consequences of the main organoleptic defects; Stabilization and treatment of wines; The chemical nature, origin and consequences of the main organoleptic defects; The concept of clarity and colloidal phenomena; Clarification and stabilization treatments; Clarification of wines by filtration and centrifugation; The stabilization of wines by physical processes; The aging of wines in vats and in barrels and aging phenomena.
The target audience includes advanced viticulture and enology students, professors and researchers, and practicing grape growers and vintners.

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Acetal is formed every time an aldehyde comes into contact with an alcohol. The reaction involves two alcohol molecules and one aldehyde molecule, as shown in Figure 2.9.

About 20 compounds of this type have been reported in wine. The most important of these, diethoxyethane, results from a reaction between acetaldehyde and ethanol ( Figure 2.10). Acetalization is a slow, reversible reaction, catalyzed by H +ions. The reaction is completed in a few hours at pH 2–3, while it takes several days at pH 4. In 10% vol. alcohol solution, 3% of the acetaldehyde may react, while 6.5% reacts if the alcohol content is 20% vol.

In view of the very small quantities of free acetaldehyde present in still wines, their acetal content is practically zero. Only wines with a high acetaldehyde content have a significant concentration of acetal. Sherry, with an acetaldehyde concentration on the order of 280 mg/l, contains 45–60 mg/l, while the concentration in Vin Jaune from the Jura region of France may be as high as 150 mg/l. These are all oxidized wines.

FIGURE 29 Formation of an acetal FIGURE 210 Acetalization of acetaldehyde - фото 105

FIGURE 2.9 Formation of an acetal.

FIGURE 210 Acetalization of acetaldehyde and formation of diethoxyethane - фото 106

FIGURE 2.10 Acetalization of acetaldehyde and formation of diethoxyethane.

FIGURE 211 Formation of γ butyrolactone Acetals have a vegetal odor that may - фото 107

FIGURE 2.11 Formation of γ ‐butyrolactone.

Acetals have a vegetal odor that may add to the aroma complexity of Sherry. Diethoxyethane is described by Arctander (1969) as having a pleasant, fruity odor.

2.6.3 Lactones

Lactones are formed by an internal esterification reaction between an acid function and an alcohol function in the same molecule. This reaction produces an oxygenated heterocycle.

Volatile lactones, produced during fermentation, are likely to contribute to wine aroma. The best known is γ ‐butyrolactone, present in wine at concentrations on the order of a mg/l. This compound results from the lactonization of γ ‐hydroxybutyric acid, an unstable molecule produced by deamination and decarboxylation of glutamic acid, according to the Ehrlich reaction (Figures 2.4and 2.11). It does not seem to play a major role in the organoleptic characteristics of wine. Lactones may also come from grapes, under the action of B. cinerea (e.g. γ ‐nonalactone) (Section 7.7) and from oak.

FIGURE 212 Formation of sotolon in wines Sotolon - фото 108

FIGURE 2.12 Formation of sotolon in wines.

Sotolon (4,5‐dimethyl‐3‐hydroxy‐2‐furanone), a highly aromatic compound ( Figure 2.12), is also formed during wine aging by the non‐enzymatically catalyzed condensation of α ‐ketobutyric acid and acetaldehyde (Section 8.7). It is thus found in Vin Jaune from the Jura region, where it is responsible for the walnut aroma so typical of this wine (Martin et al ., 1992), but also in dry and sweet white wines that have gone through oxidative phenomena (Section 8.7).

Lastly, oak releases lactones into wine during barrel aging (Section 13.7.4). The cis and trans isomers of β ‐methyl‐ γ ‐octalactone ( Figure 2.13) are known as oak lactones or whisky lactones. The pure compounds have a coconut odor, and when diluted, they are reminiscent of oaky wines. Concentrations in wine are on the order of a few tens of milligrams per liter, considerably higher than the perception threshold (a few tens of micrograms per liter).

FIGURE 213 β Methyl γ octalactone References 1 Arctander S 1969 - фото 109

FIGURE 2.13 β ‐Methyl‐ γ ‐octalactone.

References

1 Arctander S. (1969) Perfume and Flavor Chemicals. Selbstverlag, Montclair, NJ.

2 Bertrand A. (1983) Volatiles from grape must fermentation. In Flavor of Distilled Beverages, Origin and Development (Ed J.R. Piggot). Ellis Horwood Ltd.

3 Cameleyre M., Lytra G., Tempere S. and Barbe J.C. (2015) J. Agric. Food Chem., 63, 9777–9788.

4 Cameleyre M., Lytra G., Tempere S. and Barbe J.C. (2017) Food Chem., 237, 364–371.

5 Diaz‐Maroto M.C., Schneider R. and Baumes R. (2005) J. Agric. Food Chem., 53, 9, 3503–3509.

6 Dubois P. (1993) Rev. Fr. Œnol., 144, 63.

7 Falcao L., Lytra G., Darriet P. and Barbe J.‐C. (2012) Food Chem., 132, 230–236.

8 Gammacurta M., Marchand S., Lytra G., Barbe J.‐C., Moine V. and de Revel G. (2015) OENO, Bordeaux.

9 Garofolo A. and Piracci A. (1994) Bull. OIV, 67, 757–758, 225.

10 Guth H. (1997) J. Agric. Food Chem., 45(8), 3027–3032.

11 Jackson R.S. (1994) Wine Sciences. Principles and Applications. Academic Press, San Diego.

12 Lytra G., Tempere S., de Revel G. and Barbe J.‐C. (2012) J. Agric. Food Chem., 60, 1503–1509.

13 Lytra G., Tempere S., Le Floch A., de Revel G. and Barbe J.‐C. (2013) J. Agric. Food Chem., 61, 8504–8513.

14 Lytra G., Tempere S., de Revel G. and Barbe J.‐C. (2014) J. Agric. Food Chem., 62, 5005–5010.

15 Lytra G., Cameleyre M., Tempere S. and Barbe J.C. (2015) J. Agric. Food Chem., 63, 10484–10491.

16 Lytra G., Franc C., Cameleyre M. and Barbe J.‐C. (2017) J. Agric. Food Chem., 65, 5018–5025.

17 Martin B., Etievant P., Le Quere J.‐L. and Schlich P. (1992) J. Agric. Food Chem., 40, 475.

18 Martin G. and Brun S. (1987) Bull. OIV, 671–672, 131.

19 Pineau B., Barbe J.C., Van Leeuwen C. and Dubourdieu D. (2009) J. Agric. Food Chem., 57, 3702–3708.

20 Ribéreau‐Gayon J., Peynaud E., Ribéreau‐Gayon P. and Sudraud P. (1982) Analyse et Contrôle des Vins, 2nd edition. Sciences et Techniques du Vin, Vol. I. Dunod, Paris.

21 Skrzydlewska E. (2003) Toxicol. Mech. Methods, 13, 277.

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