Positive Psychology

Do we humans ever, in any degree, care for others for their sakes and not simply for our own? Daniel Batson, renowned for his research on empathy and altruism, in his chapter utilizes the empathy‐altruism hypothesis to address this question. The egoism–altruism debate is briefly discussed, touching on the egoism trend that prevails in Western societies. The empathy‐altruism hypothesis, which states that altruistic motivation is produced by empathetic concern is discussed distinguishing empathetic concern (the perceived welfare of a person in need elicits and is congruent with other‐oriented emotion) and altruistic motivation (increasing another’s welfare in the main goal). Other aspects of empathy‐altruism are articulated such as self‐benefits falling within the realm of the goal of egoism as opposed to the consequence of altruism. The author notes that empathy‐induced altruistic motivation is within the human repertoire and the biological roots of such motivation may lie in generalized parental nurturance. Practical implications of the empathy‐altruism hypothesis are then discussed in relation to its benefits and liabilities. Some benefits include the inhibition of aggression, the increase of collaboration in conflicts, and improved attitudes toward stigmatized groups. Some liabilities include the potential risk of harm (e.g., through time, money, and physical injury) by performing some altruistic acts and some needs may not necessarily arouse empathetic concern.

Distinguished psychologist, Robert J. Sternberg, differentiates between positive and negative creativity, highlighting that while fundamentally being the same, the distinguishing factor is the function they serve. The author contends that creators need to think beyond the short‐term requirements of creative solutions since solutions which have outlived their purpose may become negative in the wrong hands, for example, nuclear weapons and carbon‐based fuels. Acknowledging the prevalence and impact of negative creativity globally, the article outlines some of the fundamental reasons for negative creativity. These include enhancing reputation, responding in anger, responding to fear, and revenge.

Creators need to also pay attention to whether creativity is adding value both in the short and long term, that is whether it is positive, negative, or neutral. Citing social media and a form of creativity once intended to be positive, it has evolved into a medium which has been used to distort elections and spread hateful propaganda. One of the many conclusions from this chapter is a discussion on how creativity can be uncomfortable and potentially dangerous, but, despite this, there is a need for more positive creativity, decency in discourse, reflection, and civility.

In their chapter Jessica Kansky and Ed Diener extend theconcept of subjective well‐being (SWB) beyond happiness. The primary causes ofwell‐being (e.g., income, social relationships, genetics, strengths andpositive behaviors, and health) were discussed as well as its criticaloutcomes. SWB consists of three independently related facets: positive,negative, and life satisfaction. The dynamic nature of SWB has seen a growinginterest in the field which has been matched by evolving methods of measurementwhich range from self‐report methods to physiological and neuroimaging methods.These methods, however, are constrained by their inability to provide causal conclusions. To address this limitation, experimental methods and long‐termfollow‐up assessments were viewed as a way forward allowing researchers tounderstand the causal relationship between moods and affect. The influence ofprograms such as ENHANCE strongly suggest the malleability of happiness. As the authors pointed, “an individual may have multiplehappiness set points, rather than one global point and that different aspectsof well‐being can move in different directions independently”. Inclosing an emphasis is given to the strong need for further research on theconceptual and theoretical foundations of SWB and its globalization.

How can positive psychology be applied to leadership styles not only for the direct benefit of organizations but for overall human development? Ilona Boniwell and Wendy‐Ann Smith discuss the merit of positive leadership for organizations challenged by global competition. Employees who belong to teams which are guided by greater opportunities for recognition, whose leaders are seen as more ethical, authentic, and charismatic, tend to demonstrate greater engagement at the individual level, and those organizations are better able to achieve their corporate goals. Positive leadership is an umbrella term encompassing several leadership styles which places the human at the center of the value creation process. The authors distinguish among positive organizational scholarship, positive organizational behavior, and positive leadership as critical tools of positive psychology within the workplace. Guided by the competing values framework, which posits that leadership has the capacity to hold and integrate contrasting tensions, the chapter discusses the major theoretical underpinnings of leadership.

Some of the major tools in coaching of employees are articulated and include perceiving emotions, understanding emotions, using emotions to facilitate thinking, and managing emotions. Perceiving emotions extends beyond just that of the individual leader but also of members of the team since this directly impacts leadership thought and behaviors. Understanding emotional reactions provides a greater awareness of the causes of certain emotions and some predictability to the consequences of such emotional responses. Using emotions, both positive and negative, to facilitate thinking can have beneficial outcomes. Positive emotions make one more receptive and creative while negative emotions, guided by support have the potential for creative problem solving. Finally, the authors insightfully discuss that the managing of emotions as a coaching tool is critical since emotions can be contagious and can impact the mood and morale of work teams. Leadership is an integration between positive opposites, which can become negative when viewed in isolation, and that effective coaching supports and challenges employees to go beyond the either/or choices presented by these positive opposites.

Jolanta Burke integrates positive psychology and cyberpsychology into the new and novel field of positive technology. Merging cyberpsychology and positive psychology draws attention to the use of technology in addressing human needs and the development of well‐being programs which are delivered using technology. Positive cyberpsychology aims to study three broad areas: the positive impact of technology in directly improving individual and group level well‐being, the positive subjective experience of technology, and the positive subjective impact of online content at the individual and group level.

With respect to the positive impact of technology in directly improving individual and group level well‐being, there are currently available interventions used in the medical field which serve as a stepping stone since they primarily focus on health rather than well‐being. The author contends that cyberpsychology can inform positive psychology in this regard by focusing researchers on the effectiveness of and optimal use of cyberpsychology. To understand the impact of technology on well‐being requires further research attention to ensure end‐users’ positive experiences with technology. Specifically, there is a paucity of research on the positive impact of technology with much greater attention being given to the negative physical and mental outcome of technology. Initial studies have demonstrated how technology can improve lives and this should serve as a guide to developing positive cyberpsychology interventions.