Mantle Convection and Surface Expressions

1 Cover

2 Series Page

3 Title Page

4 Copyright Page

5 Dedication Pahe

6 List of Contributors

7 Preface Part I: State of the Mantle: Properties and Dynamic Evolution Part II: Material Transport Across the Mantle: Geophysical Observations and Geodynamic Predictions Part III: Surface Expressions: Mantle Controls on Planetary Evolution and Habitability

8 Part I: State of the Mantle 1 Long‐Wavelength Mantle Structure: Geophysical Constraints and Dynamical Models 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 METHODS 1.3 RESULTS 1.4 DISCUSSION 1.5 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 2 Experimental Deformation of Lower Mantle Rocks and Minerals 2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 BACKGROUND 2.3 METHODS: EXPERIMENTAL DEFORMATION OF LOWER MANTLE MINERALS 2.4 DEFORMATION STUDIES OF LOWER MANTLE PHASES 2.5 POLYPHASE DEFORMATION 2.6 IMPLICATIONS 2.7 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 3 Seismic Wave Velocities in Earth’s Mantle from Mineral Elasticity 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 ELASTIC PROPERTIES 3.3 EXPERIMENTS 3.4 COMPUTATIONS 3.5 PARAMETER UNCERTAINTIES 3.6 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLID SOLUTIONS 3.7 ELASTIC ANOMALIES FROM CONTINUOUS PHASE TRANSITIONS 3.8 EARTH’S LOWER MANTLE 3.9 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 4 From Mantle Convection to Seismic Observations: Quantifying the Uncertainties Related to Anelasticity 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 FROM GEODYNAMIC HYPOTHESIS TO SEISMIC OBSERVATIONS 4.3 CONSIDERING MINERALOGICAL UNCERTAINTIES 4.4 QUANTIFYING THE EFFECTS OF UNCERTAINTIES RELATED TO ANELASTICITY 4.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 5 Geochemical Diversity in the Mantle 5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.2 DEFINITIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF DISTINCT MANTLE COMPONENTS 5.3 LITHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE MANTLE COMPONENTS 5.4 THE ROLE OF CARBONATE IN MANTLE GEOCHEMICAL HETEROGENEITY 5.5 RECENT PROGRESS AND OUTLOOK FOR THE MANTLE EVOLUTION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 6 Tracking the Evolution of Magmas from Heterogeneous Mantle Sources to Eruption 6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2 PARTIAL MELTING OF A HETEROGENEOUS MANTLE 6.3 PERIDOTITE VS. PYROXENITE: EXPERIMENTAL MELT COMPOSITIONS 6.4 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN CHEMICAL HETEROGENEITIES AND PERIDOTITE 6.5 SAMPLING MELTS OF THE MANTLE: APPROACH AND OVERVIEW 6.6 FUTURE DIRECTIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 7 Super‐Deep Diamonds: Emerging Deep Mantle Insights from the Past Decade 7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 OCEAN CRUST AND CARBON RECYCLED TO THE LOWER MANTLE 7.3 RECOGNIZING CARBONATITIC MELT SIGNATURES IN THE DEEP MANTLE 7.4 SIGNS OF DEEP WATER 7.5 PRESERVED DEEP MANTLE MINERALS WITH ORIGINAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 7.6 NEW KINDS OF SUPER‐DEEP DIAMONDS: CLIPPIR AND TYPE IIB DIAMONDS 7.7 A REDUCED IRON‐SATURATED SUBLITHOSPHERIC MANTLE 7.8 DISCUSSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 8 Seismic and Mineral Physics Constraints on the D" Layer 8.1 INTRODUCTION 8.2 THE D" REFLECTOR(S) 8.3 ULTRALOW VELOCITY ZONES 8.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS APPENDIX REFERENCES 9 Toward Consistent Seismological Models of the Core–Mantle Boundary Landscape 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.2 EXISTING MODELS OF CMB TOPOGRAPHY 9.3 TWENTY YEARS OF DENSITY MODELS 9.4 QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING SEISMOLOGICAL MODELS 9.5 EFFORTS TOWARD MORE CONSISTENT MODELS 9.6 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

9 Part II: Material Transport Across the Mantle 10 Dynamics of the Upper Mantle in Light of Seismic Anisotropy 10.1 INTRODUCTION 10.2 OBSERVATIONS OF SEISMIC ANISOTROPY 10.3 INTERPRETATION OF SEISMIC ANISOTROPY 10.4 OPEN QUESTIONS 10.5 WAYS FORWARD 10.6 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 11 Mantle Convection in Subduction Zones: Insights from Seismic Anisotropy Tomography 11.1 INTRODUCTION 11.2 METHOD 11.3 APPLICATIONS 11.4 DISCUSSION 11.5 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 12 The Cycling of Subducted Oceanic Crust in the Earth’s Deep Mantle 12.1 INTRODUCTION 12.2 OBSERVATIONAL CONSTRAINTS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANIC CRUST IN THE DEEP MANTLE 12.3 THE CYCLING OF SUBDUCTED OCEANIC CRUST IN THE DEEP MANTLE 12.4 SUMMARY AND FUTURE WORK 12.5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 13 Toward Imaging Flow at the Base of the Mantle with Seismic, Mineral Physics, and Geodynamic Constraints 13.1 INTRODUCTION 13.2 OBSERVATIONAL CONSTRAINTS ON LOWERMOST MANTLE FLOW 13.3 FORWARD MODELING 13.4 JOINT GEODYNAMIC–SEISMIC MODELING 13.5 LIMITATIONS, ADVANCES, AND THE WAY FORWARD 13.6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 14 Seismic Imaging of Deep Mantle Plumes 14.1 INTRODUCTION 14.2 PHYSICAL MODELS OF DEEP MANTLE PLUMES 14.3 TRAVELTIME ANALYSIS 14.4 UNDULATIONS OF THE 410‐KM AND 660‐KM PHASE TRANSITIONS 14.5 DIFFRACTION AND SCATTERING EFFECTS 14.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

10 Part III: Surface Expressions 15 Observational Estimates of Dynamic Topography Through Space and Time 15.1 INTRODUCTION 15.2 CONVECTIVE REGIMES AND THEIR SURFACE EXPRESSION 15.3 EARLY OBSERVATIONAL CONSTRAINTS ON LARGE‐SCALE MANTLE FLOW AND THEIR ROLE IN PAST AND PRESENT GEODYNAMIC MODELING 15.4 ESTIMATING PRESENT‐DAY DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY 15.5 OBSERVATIONAL ESTIMATES OF TIME‐EVOLVING DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY 15.6 FRONTIERS AND OUTSTANDING CHALLENGES 15.7 SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 16 Connecting the Deep Earth and the Atmosphere 16.1 INTRODUCTION 16.2 OBSERVED LINKS BETWEEN DEEP EARTH AND SURFACE VOLCANISM 16.3 PLUME ASCENT SCENARIOS 16.4 VOLCANISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON VARIOUS TIMESCALES 16.5 LIPs AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY: LONG‐TERM EFFECTS 16.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND CHALLENGES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES APPENDIX 16.1 17 Mercury, Moon, Mars: Surface Expressions of Mantle Convection and Interior Evolution of Stagnant‐Lid Bodies 17.1 INTRODUCTION 17.2 MAGMA OCEAN SOLIDIFICATION AND ONSET OF SOLID‐STATE MANTLE CONVECTION 17.3 CRUSTAL MANIFESTATIONS 17.4 IMPACTS 17.5 MANTLE COOLING AND MAGNETIC FIELD GENERATION 17.6 ADDITIONAL SURFICIAL MANIFESTATION 17.7 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

11 Index

12 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 1 Table 1.1 Summary of parameters used in geodynamic models. z lmdenotes the dep...

2 Chapter 2 Table 2.1 Summary of inferred slip systems in the major lower mantle phases a...

3 Chapter 3 Table 3.1 Finite‐strain parameters for mineral phases of the lower mantle.

4 Chapter 8Table 8.1 Seismic observations and best fitting Reuss–bound results for the f...Appendix Table 8.A1 Seismic properties and their uncertainties for (Mg 0.60Fe 0...Appendix Table 8.A2 Events used for examples in Figures 3,5, and 8 (1–10) and...

5 Chapter 9Table 9.1 Overview of past observational studies of CMB topography and densit...

6 Chapter 13Table 13.1 Summary of synthetic paths used to investigate anisotropy in the g...

7 Chapter 15Table 15.1 Summary of techniques available for inferring changes in dynamic t...

8 Chapter 16Table 16.1 List of 27 hotspots that we analyse (Figure 16.5) and which are th...Table 16.2 Large igneous provinces (LIPs, Figure 16.4a), eruption latitude wi...Table 16.3 Estimated subduction flux for the past 400 Myrs that we use to def...

1 Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Correlation between structure at 2800 km depth and other mantle d... Figure 1.2 Shown here are plots of Voigt V Svariations at spherical harmonic... Figure 1.3 Radial correlation functions computed for four recent global tomo... Figure 1.4 (A) Viscosity profiles used in our geodynamic models. For compari... Figure 1.5 Power spectra of four recent global V Stomographic models. Becaus... Figure 1.6 Results from transdimensional, hierarchical, Bayesian inversions ... Figure 1.7 Divergence component of plate motions computed for 0, 100, and 20...

2 Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Approximate pressure and temperature capabilities of various defo... Figure 2.2 Summary of high‐pressure differential stress measurements on peri... Figure 2.3 Summary of high‐pressure differential stress measurement on CaSiO Figure 2.4 Summary of textures observed in ferropericlase (a) and (b), CaSiO Figure 2.5 Summary of the various textures types observed in post‐perovskite... Figure 2.6 Schematic of (a) interconnected weak layer and (b) load‐bearing f... Figure 2.7 Texture development during diamond anvil cell deformation of brid...