James G. Speight - Encyclopedia of Renewable Energy

24 T Tail Gas Tail Gas Cleaning Tail Gas Cleaning – Beavon Process Tail Gas Cleaning – Claus Process Tail Gas Cleaning – SCOT Process Tall Oil Tallow Tar Removal from Gas Streams Tar Removal from Gas Streams – Physical Methods Tar Removal from Gas Streams – Thermal Methods Tar Sand TEA Tertiary Biomass Feedstocks Texaco Gasification Process Texaco Gasifier Thermal Conversion Thermal Cracking Thermal Decomposition Thermochemical Platform Thermosphere Thiolex/Regen Process Thiopaq DeSOx Process Thiopaq Hydrogen Sulfide Removal Thorium Tidal Barrage Tidal Energy Tidal Stream Generator Timber Belts Timberland Tires – Devulcanization Tires - Dry Distillation Tires – Hydrogenation Tires – Pyrolysis Tires – Scrap Ton, Tonne Torrefaction Town Gas Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure Trace Element Transesterification Transformation in the Environment Transuranium Elements Traveling Grate Furnace Tritium Troposphere Tumbling-Bed Gasifier Turbine Turbine - Condensing Turbine – Horizontal and Vertical Axis Turbine – Impulse Turbine – Reaction Turbine – Steam Turbopause Two-Stage Gasification

25 U U-Gas Process Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration Unconventional Gas Undiscovered Reserves Unit Process Unisol Process Unit Collector Unproven Reserves Unsaturated Hydrocarbons Updraft Combustion Updraft Gasifier Upflow Expanded-Bed Reactor Upper Explosive Limit Upper Flammability Limit Uranium Urban Waste Urban Waste Briquettes

26 V Vapor Density Vapor Pressure Vegetable Oils Volatile Matter Volatile Organic Compounds Volatility, Flammability, and Explosive Properties

27 W Walker Circulation Waste Waste Biomass Waste – Domestic and Industrial Waste – Effects of Waste – Fuels From Waste – Hazardous Waste to Energy Waste – Toxicity Waste – Types Waste Disposal Waste Disposal – Acid Hydrolysis Waste Disposal – Anaerobic Digestion Waste Disposal – Briquetting Waste Disposal – Enzymatic Hydrolysis Waste Disposal – Gasification Waste Disposal – Incineration Waste Disposal – Pyrolysis Waste Management Waste Management – Biological Methods Waste Management – Chemical Methods Waste Management – Physical Methods Waste Management – Pretreatment Waste Management – Thermal Methods Waste Management – Waste Exchange Waste Minimization and Separation Waste Streams Waste Tires Waste Vegetable Oil Water Water-Cooled Vibrating Grate Boiler Water Cycle Water Cycle Water Gas Water-Gas Shift Reaction Water Pollutants Water Pollution Water Removal from Gas Streams Water Removal from Gas Streams – Absorption Water Removal from Gas Streams – Adsorption Water Removal from Gas Streams – Cryogenics Water Removal from Gas Streams – Methanol-Based Processes Water System Water Washing Wave Energy Weibull Distribution Wellman-Galusha Process Wellman-Lord Process Wet Air Oxidation Wet Gas Wet Milling Process Wet Oxidation Processes Wet Scrubbers Wet Scrubbing Systems Wet Sulfuric Acid Process Wheat Straw Willow Wind Energy Wind Power Wind Speed and Wind Gusts Wind Turbines Wind Turbines – Classification Wind Turbines – Environmental Impact Winkler Gasifier Winkler Process Wobbe index Wood Wood – Biomass Wood Chips Wood – Combustion Wood – Composition and Properties Wood – Fuels from Wood Gasification Wood – Hardwood Wood Pellets Wood Powder and Sawdust Wood – Softwood Wood – Solvent Extractable Material Wood – Thermal Treatment Wood – Uses Woodall-Duckham Process Wood Gas Wood Smoke Woody Feedstock

28 X Xylan Xylene Xylose Xylose Fermentation

29 Y Yeast Yellow Cake Yellow Flax Yellow Grease

30 Z Zeolite Zinc Oxide Process Zinc Oxide Slurry Process

31 Conversion Factors

32 Further Reading

33 About the Author

34 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 1 Figure A-1 Simplified distinction between solid waste, sludge, and liquid waste. Figure A-2 The hydrocarbon framework of the steroid system (ring lettering and a... Figure A-3 Examples of aromatic hydrocarbons showing the alternating double bond...

2 Chapter 2 Figure B-1 Biodiesel Production Path. Figure B-2 Structure of xylan from hardwood. Figure B-3 Constituents of the BTEX Mixture.

3 Chapter 5Figure E-1 Representation of an endothermic reaction in which the heat content o...Figure E-2 Ethanol production for lignocellulosic biomass.Figure E-3 Representation of an exothermic reaction in which the heat content of...

4 Chapter 8Figure H-1 Single-stage and double-stage hydrocracking.Figure H-2 Two-stage hydrotreating.

5 Chapter 12Figure L-1 Chemical structures of lignans.Figure L-2 Example of a complex triglycerides of the type found in linseed oil.

6 Chapter 14Figure N-1 Examples of naphthene derivatives.

7 Chapter 15Figure O-1 Isomers of butene.

8 Chapter 19Figure S-1 Simplified distinction between solid waste, sludge, and liquid waste.Figure S-2 The reactions that convert hydrogen to helium in the sun.Figure S-3 A dream turbine generator system.Figure S-4 Types of turbine blades.Figure S-5 Representations of the naturally occurring form of glucose.Figure S-6 Representation of the starch molecule.

9 Chapter 24Figure X-1 Structure of xylan from hardwoodFigure X-2 The three isomers of xylene.Figure X-3 Simple formula for xylose.Figure X-4 Reduction of xylose.Figure X-5 Alternate representations of xylose.

1 Introduction Table 1 Simplified categorization and nomenclature of the various energy sources...

2 Chapter 3 Table A-1 Examples of the types of absorption. Table A-2 Comparison of adsorption and absorption. Table A-3 Simplified steps that represent the conversion of polysaccharide deriv... Table A-4 Common reactions in anaerobic digestion process. Table A-5 Examples of the Types and Bulk Composition of Agricultural Residues. Table A-6 Examples of crops and crop wastes. Table A-7 Properties of various agricultural residues. Table A-8 Types of renewable fuel sources and products. Table A-9 Octane number (motor method). Table A-10 Selected physical and chemical properties of methanol, ethanol, and g... Table A-11 Fuel properties of methanol and ethanol compared to the properties of... Table A-12 Properties of selected alicyclic hydrocarbon derivatives. Table A-13 Physical properties of n-paraffins. Table A-14 Physical properties of selected branched paraffins. Table A-15 Physical properties of selected olefins. Table A-16 Physical properties of n-paraffins. Table A-17 Physical properties of selected branched paraffins. Table A-18 Physical properties of selected olefins. Table A-19 Amines (olamines) used for gas processing. Table A-20 Schematic of the anaerobic digestion process. Table A-21 Summary of most common chemical reactions in the anaerobic digestion ... Table A-22 Measurement of the apparent density of materials. Table A-23 Sources of non-oceanic water and water systems. Table A-24 Common constituents of fly ash (% w/w). Table A-25 Properties of biomass and other fuel sources. Table A-26 Approximate Composition of the Atmosphere.

3 Chapter 2 Table B-1 Non-basic and basic nitrogen types. Table B-2 Explanation of the baumé gravity scale. Table B-3 Biomass conversion processes. Table B-4 Composition of various oils and fats used for biodiesel production. Table B-5 Comparison of properties of biodiesel from various sources. Table B-6 Specifications for diesel and biodiesel (ASTM). Table B-7 Schematic of the catalytic transesterification process for biodiesel p... Table B-8 Examples of bioether derivatives used in fuels. Table B-9 Example of sources and use of biomass for energy products. Table B-10 General classification of biofuels. Table B-11 The composition of gas from various carbonaceous fuels. Table B-12 Energy content of various gases. Table B-13 Comparison of different biogas feedstocks. Table B-14 Major categories of biomass feedstocks. Table B-15 Sources, processing options, and uses of biomass-derived products*. Table B-16 Selected properties of representative biomass materials. Table B-17 Bulk composition of different biomass type (% w/w, dry basis). Table B-18 Elemental composition, ash production, and heat content of biomass ty... Table B-19 Composition of black liquor. Table B-20 Composition of synthesis gas from biomass gasification. Table B-21 Approximate composition of herbaceous biomass gas from different sour... Table B-22 A general flow scheme for biomass conversion by pyrolysis. Table B-23 Conversion of biomass to fuels. Table B-24 Routes to liquid fuels from biomass. Table B-25 Examples of the yield of bio-oil by pyrolysis from agricultural resid... Table B-26 Representation of the conversion of biomass into fuels. Table B-27 Typical properties and composition of bio-oil*. Table B-28 Simplified illustration of bio-oil upgrading. Table B-29 Simplified representation of a biorefinery. Table B-30 Simplified representation of a biorefinery. Table B-31 The defend isomers of butene (C 4H 8).