Peter R. Shewry - Wheat

1 Cover

2 Title Page Wheat Environment, Food and Health Mike J. Gooding Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, UK Peter R. Shewry Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, UK & University of Reading, Reading, UK

3 Copyright Page

4 Dedication

5 Foreword

6 Acknowledgements

7 1 Wheat and Humans 1.1 Wheat Production in the Past and Present 1.2 The Wheat Plant 1.3 Wheat Evolution and Migration 1.4 Wheat as Food 1.5 Grain Quality 1.6 Further Chapters References

8 2 A ‘Good’ Soil 2.1 Soils for Wheat Production 2.2 The Rise of the Plough 2.3 Soil Change and Land Degradation 2.4 Systems for Protecting the Soil 2.5 Land‐Use Efficiency and Soils References

9 3 Ample Water 3.1 The Water Requirement of Wheat 3.2 Available Water 3.3 Water Use Efficiency 3.4 Land‐Use Efficiency and Water References

10 4 Mild Temperatures 4.1 The Temperature Requirement for Wheat 4.2 ‘Waiting for Fine Times’ (Snape et al. 2001) 4.3 Vegetative Growth and Development 4.4 Reproductive Growth and Development 4.5 Global Warming References

11 5 Sunshine 5.1 The Light Requirement of Wheat 5.2 Light Interception 5.3 Improving Radiation Use for Increased Land‐Use Efficiency References

12 6 Canopy Management 6.1 Crop Establishment 6.2 Crop Nutrition 6.3 Diseases and their Control 6.4 Land‐use Efficiency and Canopy Management References

13 7 The Structure and Composition of the Wheat Grain 7.1 Grain Development 7.2 Structure of the Mature Grain 7.3 Major Components of the Mature Grain 7.4 Gradients in Composition within the Starchy Endosperm References

14 8 Components and Mechanisms that Determine Grain Processing Properties 8.1 Grain Hardness and Vitreousness 8.2 Dough Viscoelasticity 8.3 Functional Properties of Starch 8.4 Other Functional Components 8.5 Effects of Crop Nutrition and Environmental Factors on Grain Composition and Quality References

15 9 The Role of Wheat in Diet and Health 9.1 Contribution of Wheat to the Human Diet 9.2 Dietary Fibre 9.3 Micronutrients and Phytochemicals 9.4 Adverse Effects of Wheat on Health 9.5 Producing Healthier Wheat Products by Processing 9.6 Fungal Toxins in Wheat References

16 10 Wheat Genetics and Improvement 10.1 Genetic Background to Wheat Breeding 10.2 Technologies for Wheat Genetics and Breeding 10.3 Sources and Exploitation of Genetic Diversity 10.4 Impact of Breeding on Genetic Diversity in Wheat 10.5 Are Ancient Wheats More Healthy than Modern Wheats? 10.6 Wheat Biotechnology 10.7 Applications of Biotechnology to Wheat Improvement References

17 11 Epilogue: Wheat in Conflict and in Peace Reference

18 Index

19 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 1 Table 1.1 Production, yield, and area of wheat in the world and selected re... Table 1.2 Köppen climate classifications used in Figure 1.6. Table 1.3 Mega‐Environments (ME) for wheat. Table 1.4 Growth stage scores of wheat plants.

2 Chapter 2 Table 2.1 Description of soil structure quality. Table 2.2 The agricultural land classification system of England and Wales ... Table 2.3 Soil qualities associated with little or no constraint to wheat g... Table 2.4 Effect of cultivation method on bulk density, available N after s... Table 2.5 The effect of either ploughing or using tines for 17 years on the... Table 2.6 An example of lime application rates (t/ha, neutralizing value of...Table 2.7 Labour, fuel energy, and area capability assessments for cultivat...

3 Chapter 3Table 3.1 Approximate water holding capacities (mm) and equivalent moisture...Table 3.2 The effect of grain and straw yields on the removal rates of pota...Table 3.3 Typical potassium contents of livestock farmyard manure (FYM) and ...

4 Chapter 4Table 4.1 Base, optimum, and maximum temperatures (°C) for wheat growth and...Table 4.2 The effect of mutations at the PPD1 loci on development of near i...

5 Chapter 6Table 6.1 Typical nutrient contents of different organic sources applied to ...Table 6.2 Fungicide groups commonly used against foliar fungal pathogens of ...

6 Chapter 7Table 7.1 Histological composition (% DM) of wheat mature grains from two wh...Table 7.2 Approximate composition (% DM) of major components in grain tissue...Table 7.3 Summary of the types and characteristics of wheat gluten proteins.Table 7.4 Wheat grain proteins of the prolamin superfamily.Table 7.5 Nomenclature, amylase inhibitory activity and abundance of wheat a...Table 7.6 Concentrations of selected minerals in wholemeal and white flour f...Table 7.7 Summary of gradients in radial composition within the starchy endo...

7 Chapter 8Table 8.1 The effect of environmental conditions during phase 2 (Figure 7.4)...Table 8.2 The effect of environmental conditions during phase 2 (Figure 7.4)...

8 Chapter 9Table 9.1 Percentage contributions of bread to average daily intake of some ...Table 9.2 Summary of proposed and established health benefits of dietary fib...Table 9.3 Contents (% DM) of total dietary fibre and dietary fibre component...Table 9.4 Dietary fibre components (% DM) in white flour of wheat. Values ar...Table 9.5 Contents (μg/g) of B vitamins in wheat grain fractions (compiled f...Table 9.6 Concentrations (μg/g DM) of phenolic acids and alkylresorcinols in...Table 9.7 Concentrations (μg/g DM) of terpenoids in wholegrain of 150 lines ...Table 9.8 Concentrations (μg/g DM) of choline and betaine in wholegrain of 1...Table 9.9 Some proposed and established health benefits of phytochemical com...Table 9.10 Maximum levels (μg/g) of the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and ...

1 Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 The world production and exports of grain and oilseeds. Figure 1.2 The global distribution of wheat production. Shading intensity re... Figure 1.3 Changes in the availability of wheat (kcal/capita/day) in the die... Figure 1.4 Growth in wheat production since 1961 compared with the wheat are... Figure 1.5 The world primary commodity price of wheat (IMF 2021). Figure 1.6 Mean temperature (line) and precipitation (bars) for locations in... Figure 1.7 Wheat growth and development. Only main stem shown from stem erec... Figure 1.8 The germination phases of wheat. Boxed numerals are the decimal g... Figure 1.9 The leaf production phase of wheat. Boxed numerals are the decima... Figure 1.10 The tiller production phase of wheat. Boxed numeral is the decim... Figure 1.11 Stem extension, booting, ear emergence, and anthesis of wheat. B... Figure 1.12 Structures of a single mature spikelet. Gl = Glume; L = Lemma; P... Figure 1.13 Ears (spikes) of wheats and their relatives. Figure 1.14 The Fertile Crescent as originally described by J. H. Breasted.... Figure 1.15 Summary of the genome constitutions and evolutionary relationshi... Figure 1.16 Stone querns on display at the Archaeological Museum, University... Figure 1.17 The milling room and detail of a mill in a bakery complex at the... Figure 1.18 A modern roller mill and miller. Figure 1.19 Examples of breads consumed around the world. (a) Turkish franka... Figure 1.20 Determination, using phenolic acids as biochemical markers, of t... Figure 1.21 Relationship between grain weight and bran yield for 150 wheat g... Figure 1.22 The relationships between grain protein content, dough strength,... Figure 1.23 Gluten produced by hand washing, stretched to show the cohesive ...

2 Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Areas of wheat according to soil order as estimated by den Biggel... Figure 2.2 Soil texture classifications based on particle size distributions... Figure 2.3 The response of winter wheat to nitrogen fertilizer after previou... Figure 2.4 The effects of depth and either cultivating soil with discs or ze... Figure 2.5 The effect of soil pH on the availability of some wheat nutrients... Figure 2.6 The effect of soil pH on the seedling root growth of wheat, and t... Figure 2.7 The effect of pH on the grain yield of wheat. Figure 2.8 The effect of salinity on the grain yield of wheat. Figure 2.9 China: the relationship of the Loess Plateau to the North China P... Figure 2.10 The classically recognized area of severe wind erosion in the US... Figure 2.11 Effect of permanent pasture, arable rotation, and their conversi... Figure 2.12 The effect of duration of a continuous wheat: fallow rotation an... Figure 2.13 Effect of farmyard manure and inorganic fertilizers on the soil ... Figure 2.14 The effect of long‐term, repeated application of nitrogen fertil...Figure 2.15 Applications of herbicides to UK wheat in terms of the number of...Figure 2.16 Estimated area of US wheat by method of tillage in 2008.