John O'Brien - Earth Materials

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 A simple model of the sedimentary cycle.Figure 12.2 (a) Thin laminations (above) and thicker beds (below) in the Jur...Figure 12.3 Major terrestrial, paralic, and marine depositional environments...Figure 12.4 Laminar and turbulent flow profiles; flow lines are dashed.Figure 12.5 Transition from laminar flow (background) to turbulent flow (for...Figure 12.6 Hjulstrom's diagram showing velocity conditions for entrainment ...Figure 12.7 Sediment loads in an idealized aqueous medium.Figure 12.8 A simplified version of the flow regime concept: (a) lower flow ...Figure 12.9 Current ripples. (a) Asymmetrical current ripples on a modern be...Figure 12.10 Slightly wavy‐crested sand waves or subaqueous dunes, Rio Hondo...Figure 12.11 Antidunes in phase with standing waves on a flow surface. Antid...Figure 12.12 Flow regimes with respect to mean flow velocity and grain size....Figure 12.13 Ripple migration by stoss‐side erosion and lee‐side deposition ...Figure 12.14 Progressive increases in trough climb rates due to bed aggradat...Figure 12.15 Climbing ripple laminations produced by down‐current (left to r...Figure 12.16 Tabular sets of planar cross‐strata. (a) Formation by aggrading...Figure 12.17 (a) Wedge sets and trough sets of festoon cross‐strata formed b...Figure 12.18 Plane bed transition. (a) View of a plane bed under shallow uni...Figure 12.19 Upper flow regime and antidunes. (a–d) Antidunes in laboratory ...Figure 12.20 (a) Deep water waves showing roughly circular orbitals whose di...Figure 12.21 Oscillatory flow and sand movement (left in a, then right in b)...Figure 12.22 (a) Oscillation ripple marks showing crest bifurcation, symmetr...Figure 12.23 (a) Oscillation ripples in the Carboniferous Horton Group, Nova...Figure 12.24 Interlayered ripple‐laminated sandstone and mudstone from tidal...Figure 12.25 (a) Block diagram showing hummocky cross‐stratification (HCS). ...Figure 12.26 Major modes of sediment transport by winds: creep, saltation, a...Figure 12.27 Velocity conditions for wind erosion, transportation by suspens...Figure 12.28 Typical loess deposit; note the paucity of stratification in co...Figure 12.29 Wind ripples on back‐beach sand dunes, Australia, with branchin...Figure 12.30 Major types of sand dunes: transverse, barchan, parabolic, star...Figure 12.31 Formation of eolian cross‐strata by dune migration. (a) Dune sh...Figure B12.1 Map of West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) and East Antarctic Ice S...Figure 12.32 Erosion of bedrock by glacial plucking and glacial abrasion.Figure 12.33 Striated bedrock surface in Cambrian dolostones, northwest New ...Figure 12.34 (a) Glacial till, Pleistocene, Ohio; note the polymictic compos...Figure 12.35 Glacial varves from the Pleistocene, Maine: coarser, lighter co...Figure 12.36 Large glacial dropstone and other ice‐rafted debris from the Pl...Figure 12.37 (a) Mud flow with matrix strength sufficient to suspend boulder...Figure 12.38 (a) Debris flow deposit above an erosion surface, southern Utah...Figure 12.39 Turbidity current in a laboratory showing the head and main bod...Figure 12.40 (a) Model of a turbidity current with a head, main body, and ta...Figure 12.41 (a) Classic Bouma sequence showing an erosional base overlain b...Figure 12.42 Sole marks on bed bases. (a) Flute marks, Austen Glen Formation...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Wentworth–Udden grade scale with phi (φ) equivalents.Figure 13.2 Three‐component diagrams giving the textural names of detrital s...Figure 13.3 Gravelstones. (a) A matrix‐supported framework with gravel parti...Figure 13.4 Typical histogram of weight percent sediment versus phi size cla...Figure 13.5 Typical frequency curve for weight percent versus phi size class...Figure 13.6 Typical cumulative frequency curve for cumulative weight percent...Figure 13.7 Cumulative curves showing the median (φ 50) and different degrees...Figure 13.8 Diagram for the determination of sorting by visual comparison, u...Figure 13.9 Grain shapes defined from a, b, and c dimensions, where a ≥ b ≥ ...Figure 13.10 Imbricated clasts. (a) Tertiary, Montana, flow from left to rig...Figure 13.11 Diagram for the determination of rounding in grains of varying ...Figure 13.12 (a) Oligomictic gravel with rounded gravel and a clast‐supporte...Figure B13.1 Geological map of South Island, New Zealand, showing the Alpine...Figure 13.13 Sandstone classification of Folk (1974). F = feldspar; L = lith...Figure 13.14 Four‐component classification sandstones. F = feldspar; L = lit...Figure 13.15 (a) QFL (quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments) diagram after Dick...Figure B13.2 Large‐scale cross‐strata, Navajo sandstone, Jurassic, Utah.Figure 13.16 Reduction spots around organic particles in red–purple mudrock....Figure 13.17 Diagram showing the general relationships between color, organi...Figure 13.18 Bentonite, with its typical, lumpy popcorn‐like appearance, Mow...Figure 13.19 Oil shale with a dark color that results from its oil content....Figure 13.20 Organic‐rich sapropel layer (middle) between lighter colored la...Figure 13.21 Idealized compaction and porosity curves for well‐sorted quartz...Figure 13.22 Major varieties of long grain contacts produced by diagenetic p...Figure 13.23 Syntaxial quartz overgrowths (arrows) and blocky calcite cement...Figure 13.24 Solubility of calcite as a function of dissolved CO 2content an...Figure 13.25 Photomicrograph of calcite cemented sandstone with poikiloptic ...Figure 13.26 Images of concretions. (a) A nucleus and concentric structure i...Figure 13.27 Nodules. (a) Three flint nodules in limestone.(b) Septarian...Figure 13.28 Geodes showing banded chalcedony rims and quartz (plus bladed g...Figure 13.29 Liesegang bands in a sandstone block; note the truncation again...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Compositions of low magnesium and high magnesium calcites.Figure 14.2 (a) Shell beach, Hinchinbrook Island, Queensland, Australia: an ...Figure 14.3 (a) Modern ooids, Joulter Cay, Bahamas.(b) Thin section of o...Figure 14.4 (a) Rounded intraclasts, Jurassic, Sundance Formation, Wyoming. ...Figure 14.5 Idealized aggregate limeclasts: (a) grapestone, (b) botryoidal a...Figure 14.6 Peloids of various shapes in grain‐supported framework, with int...Figure 14.7 Carbonate mud in thin section, under plane light: (a) micrite, (...Figure 14.8 Dunham's classification of limestones.Figure 14.9 Modifications of Dunham’s classification.Figure 14.10 Folk's basic classification of carbonate rocks.Figure 14.11 Folk’s textural classification of carbonates.Figure 14.12 Tidal flat depositional environments; Bahamas.Figure 14.13 Idealized sandy beach cross‐section illustrating major depositi...Figure B14.1 (a) Major reef and carbonate buildup organisms through time. Ma...Figure 14.14 Major environments in modern reefs.Figure 14.15 Major depositional environments on a carbonate ramp.Figure 14.16 Major carbonate environments on a rimmed platform.Figure 14.17 Sketch that shows the distribution of the major zones in which ...Figure 14.18 Stylolites with a “toothed” pattern (below the penny) and a thi...Figure 14.19 Moldic porosity, showing a dissolved gastropod shell, later fil...Figure 14.20 Marine, isopachous rim cement (brownish) on grains with pore sp...Figure 14.21 Syntaxial calcite in optical continuity on an echinoderm spine....Figure 14.22 Environments of evaporite formation in modern sabkhas and the c...Figure 14.23 (a) Nodular gypsum, Triassic Mercia Group, Watchet Beach, Engla...Figure B14.2 Distribution of Miocene evaporites in the Mediterranean Basin....Figure 14.24 Sketch models for large barred basin evaporite formation: (a) s...Figure 14.25 Cross‐section and sketch map view of an idealized evaporite bas...Figure 14.26 Conditions under which modern siliceous oozes accumulate below ...Figure 14.27 Bedded “ribbon” chert in outcrops. (a) Radiolarian chert, Creta...Figure 14.28 Chert nodules. (a) Flint nodules in Kalkberg limestone, Devonia...Figure 14.29 (a) Siliceous sinter precipitated around hot springs, Yellowsto...Figure 14.30 Banded iron formation, Vermillion Range, Minnesota.Figure 14.31 Manganese nodule.Figure 14.32 Black phosphate layer, Phosphoria Formation, Permian, Wyoming....Figure 14.33 Major ranks of coal produced during progressive coalification, ...Figure 14.34 Peat and the major ranks of coal derived from it during coalifi...Figure 14.35 Formation of crude oil, wet gas, dry gas and kerogens during pe...Figure 14.36 Major types of petroleum traps: (top) structural traps produced...