Geophysical Monitoring for Geologic Carbon Storage

15 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 A 2D cross‐well ERT layout. Electrodes are mounted on the outsid...Figure 16.2 (a) Layout of one injection well F1 and two monitoring wells F2 ...Figure 16.3 Contact resistance showing electrode conditions: (a) normal, (b)...Figure 16.4 Top row: Time‐lapse resistivity changes for the first 100 days a...Figure 16.5 Layout of monitoring system at the Vrøgum CO 2injection site (no...Figure 16.6 Time‐lapse electrical conductivity changes along a diagonal cros...Figure 16.7 Comparison of (a) GPR‐derived CO 2gas saturation and (b) ERT‐der...

16 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Thickness map of the Skade formation with the three injection we...Figure 17.2 (a) and (b) P at year 2070. The vertical solid black lines in...Figure 17.3 (a) σ and (b) Δρ in Γ at year 2070.Note that Ω is outlined w...Figure 17.4 (a) ζ generated using ; (b) σ, (c) Δρ, and (d) V pmodels mad...Figure 17.5 Step 1 CSEM inversion: (a) True σ, mean of the (b) initial, and ...Figure 17.6 Step 1 CSEM inversion: Variance of the (a) initial and (b) final...Figure 17.7 Step 1 gravity inversion: (a) True Δρ, mean of the (b) initial, ...Figure 17.8 Step 1 gravity inversion: Variance of the (a) initial and (b) fi...Figure 17.9 AVO winversion: (a) True V p, mean of the (b) initial, and (c)...Figure 17.10 AVO winversion: Variance of the (a) initial and (b) final updat...Figure 17.11 The ζ generated using for (a) AVO cand (c) AVO g; and V pf...Figure 17.12 AVO cinversion: (a) True V p, mean of the (b) initial, and (c...Figure 17.13 AVO cinversion: Variance of the (a) initial and (b) final updat...Figure 17.14 AVO ginversion: (a) True V p, mean of the (b) initial, and (c...Figure 17.15 AVO ginversion: Variance of the (a) initial and (b) final updat...Figure 17.16 Data misfit using initial ensemble from (a) AVO w; and final upd...Figure 17.A1 Two arbitrary instances of the LSR with N c= 2.Figure 17.A2 (a) Schematic detail of parameter grid (thick lines) and forwar...Figure 17.A3 Sketch of arbitrary q ( x; m) in the vicinity of ζ: (a) LSR and (...

17 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Salinity dependence of zeta potential (ζ). In the numerical simu...Figure 18.2 Relative streaming potential coefficient ( C r) given by equati...Figure 18.3 Schematic representation of a geobattery.Figure 18.4 Three dimensional model used for reservoir simulation of CO 2inj...Figure 18.5 Histories of total, gaseous, and dissolved CO 2masses (a) in the...Figure 18.6 Pressure (blue), salinity (green), and CO 2gas saturation (black...Figure 18.7 Self‐potential distribution produced through electrokinetic coup...Figure 18.8 Distributions of electrical conductivity (left), exchange curren...Figure 18.9 Self‐potential profile produced through the geobattery mechanism...Figure 18.10 Layout of SP monitoring network at the Aneth CCU/EOR test site....Figure 18.11 Measured self‐potentials from May 2008 to May 2010 for (a) thre...Figure 18.12 Layout of SP monitoring near the wellhead of monitoring well at...Figure 18.13 Measured self‐potentials from April 2014 through February 2017 ...

18 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Location of IBDP (blue star) in relation to Illinois Basin and s...Figure 19.2 Historic and instrument‐located earthquakes in Illinois from 179...Figure 19.3 Geologic column of the IBDP site showing Mt. Simon reservoir, se...Figure 19.4 Aerial site photo view with well locations.Figure 19.5 Cross section across the IBDP study site showing the Mt. Simon a...Figure 19.6 Diagram of pressure readings in lower six levels (zones) of VW1 ...Figure 19.7 Diagram showing configuration of borehole and monitoring equipme...Figure 19.8 (a) Geiger solution RMS residual slice for a selected constraine...Figure 19.9 Maximum theoretical uncertainty of microseismic x‐y‐z location a...Figure 19.10 Sample spectral analysis of data from CCS1 used to compute even...Figure 19.11 Clusters 1–4 directions in relation to maximum horizontal in si...Figure 19.12 Gutenberg‐Richter plot of all the microseismicity during the 3 ...Figure 19.13 (a) FPS inclination analysis using strike‐slip model with avera...Figure 19.14 FPS results for all clusters.Figure 19.15 Key model components and data sources: 3D seismic intersection,...Figure 19.16 (a) Discrete features inverted from microseismic observations u...Figure 19.17 Location of modeled microseismic events (yellow) and measured m...Figure 19.18 Number of modeled microseismic events (green) and observed micr...Figure 19.19 Comparison of modeled microseismic events (red) at time steps t...

19 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 (a) U.S Department of Energy Regional Carbon Sequestration Partn...Figure 20.2 Map showing anthropogenic sources of CO 2and potential oilfield ...Figure 20.3 Over 150 km of pipeline connect two sources to three projects an...Figure 20.4 Map showing data collection locations and methods for use in cha...Figure 20.5 Geologic characterization of the reservoir occurred at a variety...Figure 20.6 The storage reservoir characterized by hydraulic flow units. HFU...Figure 20.7 Relative strength of reservoir and caprock facies. Caprock facie...Figure 20.8 1,524 m x 1,524 m 1D mechanical Earth model. The model is center...Figure 20.9 Location map of all FWU wells and SWP aqueous‐phase (purple shad...Figure 20.10 Fluid injection and fluid/tracer production history for FWU inj...Figure 20.11 Fluid injection and fluid/tracer production history for FWU inj...Figure 20.12 CO 2mole fraction 20 year forecast distribution at the FWU. Pla...Figure 20.13 Risk assessment workflow.Figure 20.14 Process influence diagram for CO 2storage and CO 2‐EOR risks/FEP...Figure 20.15 Monthly accounting since SWP began monitoring the site in 2013,...Figure 20.16 Cumulative values for features shown in Figure 20.15. Targeted ...Figure 20.17 Monthly oil production and CO 2injection. Oil production and CO

20 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 Location maps showing (a) the regional setting of Cranfield fiel...Figure 21.2 Baseline seismic showing (a) a 30 Hz amplitude variation with fr...Figure 21.3 Comparing the fluid‐flow model to the 4D seismic response (from ...Figure 21.4 Interpreted cross‐well tomography velocity difference at the DAS...Figure 21.5 Inversion of ERT response over time to CO 2saturation (from Carr...Figure. 21.6 Surface pressure measurements in injection well F1 and observat...

21 Chapter 22Figure 22.1 (a) Location of the Sleipner Field in the Norwegian North Sea. S...Figure 22.2 P‐wave velocity variation with brine saturation for various patc...Figure 22.3 Two‐way travel time map view of the Top Utsira Sand Wedge horizo...Figure 22.4 (a) P‐wave velocity model of baseline vintage (1994) derived by ...Figure 22.5 (a, b, and c) Frame bulk modulus K D, frame shear modulus G D,and...Figure 22.6 (a, b, and c) Uncertainty of frame bulk modulus K D, frame shear ...Figure 22.7 (a, b, and c) CO 2saturation estimated by RPI using patchiness e...Figure 22.8 (a, b, and c) Uncertainty of CO 2saturation estimated by RPI usi...Figure 22.9 (a and b) Estimation of patchiness exponent and related uncertai...Figure 22.10 From left to right: 1D profiles of CO 2saturation using differe...Figure 22.11 Estimation of frame shear modulus, frame bulk modulus, and poro...Figure 22.12 (a and b) Estimation of brine saturation S wand (c and d) estim...Figure 22.13 Estimation of brine saturation S wand Brie exponent e in the ca...Figure 22.14 Estimation of brine saturation S wand Brie exponent e in the ca...