Poly(lactic acid)

15 Chapter 16TABLE 16.1 Chemical Composition and Mechanical Properties of Different Plant...TABLE 16.2 Surface Modification of PLA‐Based CompositesTABLE 16.3 Processing Techniques Employed for Fabrication of PLA Composites...TABLE 16.4 Mechanical Properties of PLA Composites

16 Chapter 17TABLE 17.1 Characteristics of Four Different OrganoclaysTABLE 17.2 Processing Techniques and Structures of PLA/CNT, PLA/Graphene Na...TABLE 17.3 Improvement (with Respect to Neat PLA) in Mechanical Properties...TABLE 17.4 Improvement in Properties Achieved in PLA/Nanocomposites

17 Chapter 19TABLE 19.1 Bond Dissociation Energy of Some Chemical Bonds and the Correspo...TABLE 19.2 Absorption Wavelength and Absorption Coefficient for Some Chemic...

18 Chapter 20TABLE 20.1 List of Kinetic Parameters of Thermal Degradation Simulation Cur...

19 Chapter 21TABLE 21.1 Reported Articles on Hydrolytic Degradation of PLA‐Based Materia...TABLE 21.2 Material and Media‐Related Factors That Affect Degradation Behav...TABLE 21.3 Indexes (Methods) for Monitoring DegradationTABLE 21.4 Critical Thickness (L critical) of Biodegradable Polyesters, Ab...TABLE 21.5 Equilibrium Melting Temperature ( ) and “Folding Surface” Free E...TABLE 21.6 The Activation Energy of Hydrolytic Degradation (ΔE h) in the Me...

20 Chapter 23TABLE 23.1 Overview of PLA LCAsTABLE 23.2 Comparison of Normalized Environmental Impacts for Production vs...TABLE 23.3 PLA End‐of‐Life Waste Management. LCA Methodologies Considering...TABLE 23.4 PLA End‐of‐Life Waste Management. LCA Methodologies Considering...TABLE 23.5 Agricultural Management Strategies: Potential Life Cycle ImpactsTABLE 23.6 Sample of Starch Resources

21 Chapter 24TABLE 24.1 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), Plastics, and Resins Generated, Rec...TABLE 24.2 Impact Analysis of Each Midpoint Indicator for Scenario 5 (5 kg...TABLE 24.3 General Requirements to Test Biodegradation Under Laboratory Con...

22 Chapter 25TABLE 25.1 Requirements for Biomaterials [4]TABLE 25.2 Medical Applications of Biodegradable Polymers [4, 5]TABLE 25.3 Second‐Generation PLLA Stents in Preclinical and Clinical Testin...TABLE 25.4 Commercially available PLA‐based GBR membranesTABLE 25.5 Commercially Available PLA Bone Fixatives in the World Market

23 Chapter 26TABLE 26.1 Transition Temperatures of PLA CopolymersTABLE 26.2 Main PLA Grade Commercialized by NatureWorks LLC (Ingeo Portfoli...TABLE 26.3 Total Corbion, Luminy Resin PortfolioTABLE 26.4 Commercially Available PLA/ PLA‐Based Consumer GoodsTABLE 26.5 Selected Examples of Commercially Available PLA Food ServicewareTABLE 26.6 Examples of PLA Uses in Automotive Industries

24 Chapter 27TABLE 27.1 Comparison of PLA and PET Fiber/Textile PropertiesTABLE 27.2 Differences Between Enzymatic and Chemical HydrolysisTABLE 27.3 Comparisons of PLA Degradation Behavior in Sea Water with That i...TABLE 27.4 Antibacterial Activity of PLA Fibers

25 Chapter 28TABLE 28.1 Sorption of Aromatic Chemicals as Model HOCs by Biodegradable an...TABLE 28.2 Degradability of Aliphatic Polyester Pellets Under Denitrifying...TABLE 28.3 Nitrogen Removal Efficiency in Solid‐Phase Denitrification Proce...TABLE 28.4 Microbial Community Structure of Solid‐Phase Denitrification Pro...

1 Introduction FIGURE P.1 Number of publications since 1984 based on Web of Science search ...

2 Chapter 1 FIGURE 1.1 Two enantiomeric forms of lactic acid: ( S )‐ and ( R )‐2‐hydroxyprop... FIGURE 1.2 Lactic acid condensation reactions: interchange between lactide, ... FIGURE 1.3 During conversion of glucose to pyruvate, chemical energy (ATP) i... FIGURE 1.4 Lactic acid formation from pyruvate: reoxidation of NADH and NAD ... FIGURE 1.5 Simplified block scheme of traditional lactic acid production pro... FIGURE 1.6 The three diastereomeric structures of lactide (3,6‐dimethyl‐1,4‐... FIGURE 1.7 Schematic illustration of lactide manufacture by thermal catalyti... FIGURE 1.8 Ring‐opening polymerization of lactide to PLA initiated by an alc... FIGURE 1.9 Equilibrium reaction of tin octoate with alcohol initiator or imp...

3 Chapter 2 FIGURE 2.1 Selected vapor pressures of anhydrous lactic acid selected from l... FIGURE 2.2 Chemical structure of lactic acid and lactoyllactic acid. FIGURE 2.3 Chemical reaction between lactic acid and lactoyllactic acid. FIGURE 2.4 Left axis—total titratable acidity tabulated by Holten [28] from ... FIGURE 2.5 The percent equivalent monomer lactic acid for L 1through L 4. Ope... FIGURE 2.6 Parity plot of p values determined by two methods as explained in... FIGURE 2.7 VLE data for lactic acid + water at 101.33 kPa as reported by Vu ... FIGURE 2.8 Comparison of aqueous lactic acid density calculated using Equati... FIGURE 2.9 Comparison of viscosity calculated using Equations 2.29–2.31 with... FIGURE 2.10 Comparison of viscosity calculated using Equations 2.29–2.31 wit...

4 Chapter 3 FIGURE 3.1 Manufacturing routes for lactic‐acid‐based polymers. FIGURE 3.2 Theoretical relation between concentration of chain terminator an... FIGURE 3.3 Schematic description of the solid‐state polycondensation. FIGURE 3.4 Chain‐extension reactions of LA‐based prepolymers using diisocyan... FIGURE 3.5 Chain‐extension reactions of LA‐based prepolymers using bis‐2‐oxa... FIGURE 3.6 Chain‐extension reactions of LA‐based prepolymers using bis‐epoxi...

5 Chapter 4 FIGURE 4.1 Structures explored as comonomers with lactide monomer. (a) GA, (... FIGURE 4.2 Structures of catalysts used in lactide polymerization. FIGURE 4.3 Polyol cores used for synthesis of different architecture in lact... FIGURE 4.4 Representative structure of triblock copolymer based on LLA and P... FIGURE 4.5 Schematic diagram of the synthesis of ABA triblock copolymer usin... FIGURE 4.6 Synthetic route for the preparation of cholesterol–PEG–PDLA [37].... FIGURE 4.7 Synthesis of protected and deprotected block copolymers. Polymeri... FIGURE 4.8 Star‐shaped copolymers of LA [119]. FIGURE 4.9 Representative structure of multiblock copolymers based on LLA an... FIGURE 4.10 Reaction sequence for preparation of PNIPAAm‐ b ‐PLA [72]. FIGURE 4.11 Synthesis of 3‐alkylthiophene and LLA‐based block copolymer [127... FIGURE 4.12 Synthesis of oxanorbornenes and LA‐based copolymers [145]. FIGURE 4.13 Synthetic route for the preparation of branched PLLA. FIGURE 4.14 Reaction scheme of enzymatic polymerization [154]. FIGURE 4.15 Synthesis of macromonomers. FIGURE 4.16 Structure of LA‐ and DMS‐based macromonomers and macroinitiators... FIGURE 4.17 Hydroxy end‐functionalized star‐shaped PCL macroinitiators [56].... FIGURE 4.18 Common routes to synthesize random and alternating PLGA and typi...

6 Chapter 5 FIGURE 5.1 Stereoblock PLA formation from rac‐LA in a single step. FIGURE 5.2 Two‐step ROP for the synthesis of di‐sb‐PLA. FIGURE 5.3 Two‐step ROP for the synthesis of tri‐sb PLA followed by chain ex... FIGURE 5.4 Schematic representation of the methods adopted for developing sb... FIGURE 5.5 Applications of the sc‐PLA‐based copolymers and composites.