Bruce Bagemihl - Biological Exuberance

Another problem with attributing homosexual interactions to mistaken sex identification is that it can (at most) account for the initial interest of one animal in another of the same sex. It cannot explain why the animal “mistaken” for the opposite sex often willingly participates in the homosexual interaction or may even initiate it. Even if homosexual pairs in Antbirds, for example, result from an initial failure on the part of a courting male to distinguish between the sexes (as has been claimed), such pairs could not persist for years unless both males were actively fostering the bond between them (or at the very least, not resisting the homosexual relationship). As scientists studying homosexual matings in Tree Swallows have pointed out, even if males mistake other males for females (which is not likely), the males they copulate with nevertheless do not resist their homosexual advances and even actively facilitate genital contact. Notably, they do not adopt the specific tactics used by birds in this species to deter unwanted sexual advances (typically displayed by females in heterosexual contexts). While male Black-crowned Night Herons may court males and females indiscriminately, their male partners are nevertheless sexually stimulated by the performance and may go on to form a homosexual pair-bond with them. In Regent Bowerbirds, “female-resembling” adolescent males may actually initiate courtship display toward adult males (the reverse of the usual scenario in cases of “mistaken” sex identification). Finally, male Greenshanks who visit other males’ territories and are “mistaken” for females actively precipitate homosexual courtship pursuits: they depart from the territory using a special swerving flight pattern that invites the other male to follow them (also used by females during heterosexual courtships). If they did not want to spark a homosexual courtship, they could simply employ any of the several strategies used by females to deter males’ advances in this species, such as leaving the territory in a direct flight path or “leapfrogging” over a pursuing male during a ground chase—yet these are not typically part of homosexual interactions. 89Thus, even if mistaken sex recognition is responsible for bringing two animals of the same sex together, it is ultimately irrelevant in explaining why those two animals often remain together to continue their interaction and bring it to its full conclusion, be it a completed courtship or mating episode, or a pair-bond lasting many years. 90

In summary, a whole host of considerations cast serious doubt on mistaken sex recognition or indiscriminate mating as an explanation with wide applicability (or credibility). Once again, the complexities of animal behavior elude the broad brushstrokes of human interpretation. Numerous interconnected elements must be factored in, such as the subtleties of actual physical differences between the sexes, the strength and acuity of animals’ various perceptual abilities, differential behaviors between males and females, the active participation of individuals “mistaken” for the opposite sex, and the intricacies that arise when transgender is layered over homosexuality. In the end, the most significant “misrecognition” is probably not that of animals who overlook each other’s sex, but that of scientists who fail to recognize the importance and interplay of these factors. Nevertheless, even if mating or courtship in some species is in fact random or indiscriminate between males and females, such “randomness” is actually compelling evidence (once again) for a bisexual capacity in such creatures. This in itself is a vital observation that is frequently downplayed by scientists, who all too readily discount the homosexual part of this mating equation as a necessary “error” made by animals on their path to achieving greater heterosexual output. In such a mechanistic view, animals simply mate with as many partners as they can—male or female—to maximize their reproductive success, even if it means that some of their matings will be nonreproductive. The fact remains, however, that such animals have the ability to respond sexually to individuals of their own sex—and they do so repeatedly, with apparent enthusiasm, and (one might add) noticeable disregard for the “mistakes” they are making.

Homosexuality in animals has frequently been regarded as a pathological condition. Such terms as abnormal and aberrant are routinely applied to this phenomenon (as mentioned in chapter 3), often with no further justification or explication—homosexuality is considered sufficient in itself to warrant the label of disease, disorder, dysfunction, or deviance. A number of researchers, however, are more specific in their pathologizing of homosexuality and transgender, and in this section we’ll examine two of the principal “explanations” of this sort that have been put forward: the claims that homosexuality is caused by the artificial conditions of captivity, and that homosexuality/transgender is the manifestation of a physiological abnormality.

For a long time, scientists discounted examples of animal homosexuality because some of the earliest descriptions were based on captive animals. In many cases, biologists continue to classify this behavior as “abnormal” and attribute it to the “unnatural” circumstances of confinement or contact with humans. One scientist, for example, writes of homosexual pairs in Swans (as well as other “sexual aberrations” such as heterosexual trios and interspecies matings): “Captive swans, like many other animals, sometimes show gross abnormalities of behavior. These are due almost entirely to the artificial conditions under which the birds are kept.” 91As recently as 1991, homosexuality in Wattled Starlings was ascribed to their captivity. Other species for which similar “explanations” have been proposed (including appeals to factors such as crowding and/or stress in captivity) include Common Chimpanzees, Gorillas, Stumptail Macaques, Musk-oxen, Koalas, Long-eared Hedgehogs, Vampire Bats, and Black-crowned Night Herons. 92Sometimes the only context where same-sex activity is discussed is to exemplify the types of “pathologies” that arise in captivity. Homosexuality in Dolphins, for instance, was offered as an illustration of the “sexual aberrancy” that can result from confinement in aquariums, while a case of female coparenting in Barn Owls was included in a report on “Abnormal and Maladaptive Behavior in Captive Raptors”—part of a monograph on (of all things) diseases in birds of prey. Homosexual activity in Rhesus Macaques was even presented (along with a number of other “abnormal” behaviors) as an illustration of the deleterious effects of malnutrition. 93In a perfect example of the sort of circular reasoning that is employed in many scientific discussions, homosexuality in captive animals is often cited as the “proof” of the artificiality of their captive conditions. One zoologist proclaims, “Homosexual behavior [in Cheetahs]… is reported in zoos as quite frequent, which to me indicates that something is amiss at the zoos,” while another states, “The very occurrence of female-female pairs [in Zebra Finches] suggests behavioral pathology.” 94This is chillingly reminiscent of the not-so-distant “medicalized” views of human homosexuality, where the mere existence of same-sex attraction or activity was sufficient to “diagnose” pathology or mental illness.

While it is true that captivity sometimes does induce unusual behaviors in animals, the bulk of the evidence does not support this as a “cause” of animal homosexuality. As primatologist Linda Fedigan observes, “Although… homosexual relationships in animals can occur as a result of stressful captive conditions, we would suggest that all such behavior should not be dismissed as pathological or dysfunctional, a practice which results in ‘explaining it away’ rather than explaining it.” 95On statistical grounds alone there is no substantiation for a greater incidence of homosexuality in captive animals—in fact, just the reverse is true. In more than 60 percent of the mammals and birds in which same-sex activity has been documented, this behavior occurs spontaneously in the wild. In more than two-thirds of these species, homosexuality has only been observed in the wild, while in the remaining cases it occurs in both wild and captive animals. 96A number of scientists have remarked on a higher rate of homosexual activity in captivity compared to in the wild when the behavior occurs in both situations. In other words, there may be a quantitative, rather than qualitative, difference between wild and captive conditions, although the occurrence of homosexuality itself cannot be attributed to confinement. However, even this difference is less than clear-cut. In some species such as Orang-utans, Hamadryas Baboons, Mule Deer, and Musk-oxen, there does indeed appear to be a higher rate of homosexual courtship and/or sexual activity—as well as heterosexual activity—in captivity compared to the wild, although in some instances this is based on impressionistic observations. 97In contrast, two species for which detailed quantitative information is available show nearly identical rates of same-sex activity in the wild versus captivity: in Bonobos, studies of wild animals have revealed that 45–46 percent of all sexual activity is homosexual, while a captive study yielded a figure of 49 percent; in Black Swans, one investigator found that 5 percent of captive pairs were homosexual while 6 percent of wild ones were. 98