Bruce Bagemihl - Biological Exuberance

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Laughing Gull (Hand 1981:138-39); Black-headed Gull (van Rhijn and Groothuis 1985:161); Herring Gull (Shugart et al. 1988:934); inclusion of infertile eggs in hatching rates of female pairs: Kovacs and Ryder 1983:661-62, Ryder and Somppi 1979:3 (Ring-billed Gull); Burger, J., and M. Gochfield (1996) “Laridae (Gulls),” p. 584, in J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal, eds., Handbook of the Birds of the World , vol. 3, Hoatzin to Auks, pp. 572-623 (Barcelona: Lynx Edicións); shared characteristics of heterosexual and homosexual supernormal clutches: Kovacs and Ryder 1983:660-62, Lagrenade and Mousseau 1983, Ryder and Somppi 1979:3 (Ring-billed Gull and other species) (on the lower productivity of supernormal clutches attended by heterosexual pairs in species other than Gulls, see Sordahl, T. A. [1997] “Breeding Biology of the American Avocet and Black-necked Stilt in Northern Utah,” pp. 350, 352, Southwestern Naturalist 41:348— 54); equivalent parenting abilities of homosexual and heterosexual pairs: Hunt and Hunt 1977:1467, Hayward and Fry 1993:17-18 (Western Gull); Conover 1989:148 (Ring-billed Gull); Nisbet et al. 1998:314 (Roseate Tern); “runaways” from heterosexual parents: Pierotti and Murphy 1987 (Western Gull and other species); Brown et al. 1995 (Ring-billed Gull); Roberts and Hatch 1994 (Kittiwake).

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Gray Whale (Darling 1977:10—11).

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In fact, it can safely be said that no scientific study of wild animals has yet been undertaken with the expectation that homosexual activity would be observed—same-sex behavior is invariably a “surprise.” In contrast, many a field study has been initiated for the express purpose of studying heterosexual mating—and has quite often been treated to the unexpected occurrence of same-sex activity and/or the absence (or rarity) of opposite-sex interactions.

28

Laughing Gull (Burger and Beer 1975:312); Common Murre (Hatchwell 1988:167); Kittiwake (Chardine 1986:1416, 1987:516); Griffon Vulture (Blanco and Martinez 1996:247).

29

Grebes (Nuechterlein and Storer 1989:344—45).

30

For a recent example concerning a little-known species, see Dyrcz, A. (1994) “Breeding Biology and Behavior of the Willie Wagtail Rhipidura leucophrys in the Mdang Region, Papua New Guinea,” Emu 94:17—26.

31

Emu (Heinroth 1924, 1927); Regent Bowerbird (Gilliard 1969:341); Dugong (Jones 1967; Nair et al. 1975:14). The visual resemblance between younger male and adult female Superb Lyrebirds has also resulted in some misidentifications and revised interpretations of this species’ behavior in the wild. Although Smith (1968:88—89, 1988:30—32, 75—78) and Lill (1979a:496) state clearly (and offer photographic documentation) that adult males court (and even mount) younger males, the identification of some individuals has not been so straightforward. One bird photographed as it was being courted by an adult male (including full courtship displays) was first identified as “possibly” a male (Smith 1968:60), then as a female (Smith 1988:30). However, after a careful review of the plumage characteristics of adult females and younger males, L. H. Smith has confirmed (personal communication) that the younger bird in this case was indeed a male and in fact was most likely the adult male’s own son. Unfortunately, the earlier published reports in which the sex of the younger bird was unclear may have led Reilly (1988:32) to state erroneously that males never perform full courtship displays toward other males. For additional photographs of males performing full displays to other males, see Smith (1988:77) and p. 13 (this book).

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King Penguin (Gillespie 1932:96-120).

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Snow Goose (Quinn et al. 1989); Ring-billed Gull (Kovacs and Ryder 1981); Red-backed Shrike (Pounds 1972); Blue Tit (Blakey 1996); Guianan Cock-of-the-Rock (Trail and Koutnik 1986); Stumptail Macaque (Chevalier-Skolnikoff 1976:522 [table III]); Jackdaw (Röell 1979:126-27); Cheetah (Eaton and Craig 1973:248, 250); Bonobo (Parish 1996:65, 86; de Waal 1997:112—15). Similarly, in citing Hartman’s (1971) original descriptions of homosexuality in West Indian Manatees, Ronald et al. (1978:37) focus on examples of same-sex activity that occur in conjunction with heterosexual behaviors and downplay those that are independent of opposite-sex encounters (even though such independent encounters are equally, if not more, prevalent). On a related point, genes that are thought to control homosexual activity in Fruit Flies have been given names by scientists that refer solely to their (negative) effect on heterosexuality and breeding. One gene has been labeled dissatisfaction (alluding to the fact that carriers of this gene, in addition to being interested in homosexual activity, typically refuse or are “dissatisfied” with heterosexual advances), while another has been called fruitless (alluding to the fact that carriers, in addition to courting individuals of both sexes, are infertile) (Finley et al. 1997:917).

34

Savanna (Olive) Baboon (Owens 1976:254); Right Whale (Clark 1983:169); Moose (Van Ballenberghe and Miquelle 1993:1688); Cattle Egret (Fujioka and Yamagishi 1981:136).

35

Squirrel Monkey (Talmage-Riggs and Anschel 1973:70-71); Bonobo (Savage-Rumbaugh and Wilkerson 1978:338; Savage and Bakeman 1978:614); Spotted Hyena (Burr 1996:118-19). For conflicting information on the occurrence of clitoral penetration in Spotted Hyenas, see Glickman (1995). See also Morris (1956:261), who defines courtship as “the heterosexual reproductive communication system leading up to the consummatory sexual act” (Morris, D. [1956] “The Function and Causation of Courtship Ceremonies,” in M. Autuori and Fondation Singer-Polignac, L‘instinct dans le comportement des animaux et de l’homme [Paris: Masson et Cie.])

36

Savanna (Chacma) Baboon (Marais 1922/1969:215).

37

Ruff (van Rhijn 1991:21); Bonnet Macaque (Nolte 1955:179).

38

Walrus (Miller and Boness 1983:305); African Elephant (Shelton 1965:163-64); Gorilla (Maple, T. [1977] “Unusual Sexual Behavior of Nonhuman Primates,” in J. Money and H. Musaph, eds., Handbook of Sexology, pp. 1169-70 [Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica]); Sage Grouse (Scott 1942:495); Hanuman Langur (Mohnot 1984:349); Common Chimpanzee (Kortlandt 1962:132); Musk-ox (Reinhardt 1985:297-98); Mallard Duck (Lebret 1961:111—12); Blue-bellied Roller (Moynihan 1990:17); Lion (Cooper 1942:26-28); Orang-utan (Rijksen 1978:257); Savanna Baboon (Noë 1992:295, 311); Mule Deer (Halford et al. 1987:107); Hammerhead (Brown 1982:171; Campbell 1983:11); Bonobo (Thompson-Handler et al. 1984:358; de Waal 1987:319, 1997:102); Japanese Macaque (Green 1975:14); Rhesus Macaque (Reinhardt et al. 1986:56); Red Fox (Macdonald 1980:137); Squirrels (Ferron 1980; Horwich 1972; Reilly 1972). A few of these terms are also applied to nonreproductive heterosexual activities, in which case the attribution of “falseness” refers to the fact that the behavior does not result in procreation rather than to a same-sex context per se. See chapter 5 for further discussion of the parallel treatment of nonreproductive heterosexual behaviors as “abnormal” in the history of zoology.

39

The categorization of homosexual activity as less than “genuine” sexual activity is an important issue, and the various ways that same-sex activity is desexualized will be examined in greater detail in the next section.

40

Bonobo (Kano 1992); Common Chimpanzee (de Waal 1982); Snow Goose (Diamond 1989); Lesser Flamingo (Alraun and Hewston 1997); Oystercatcher (Heg and van Treuren 1998); Black-billed Magpie (Baeyens 1979); Black Stilt (Reed 1993); Fruit Flies (Cook 1975); Long-legged Fly sp. (Dyte 1989).

41

Gowaty, P. A. (1982) “Sexual Terms in Sociobiology: Emotionally Evocative and Paradoxically, Jargon,” Animal Behavior 30:630—31. The title of the article in question (Abele and Gilchrist 1977, on Acanthocephalan Worms) also contained the word rape, so it is possible that scientists were “snickering” at this as well. Gowaty suggests replacing, along with unisexual for homosexual , all “loaded” terminology with more “neutral” words, e.g., forced copulation for rape, kleptogamy for cuckoldry, one-male social unit for harem . Many of her arguments for such alternate terminology are valid, e.g., that the “loaded” terms are often scientifically inaccurate. Notably, however, her principal argument against the word homosexual is not that it is inaccurate, but that use of this term is “sensationalistic” and triggers the prejudices of other scientists, thereby preventing them from seeing past the word to what it describes. It should also be pointed out that many formerly controversial terms for heterosexual behaviors are now acceptable in scientific circles. The word divorce, for example, was first greeted with an “uproar” when used to describe the break-up of pair-bonds in birds, and numerous scientists suggested replacing it with more “neutral” words; yet the term is now widely used in the ornithological literature (Milius, S. [1998] “When Birds Divorce: Who Splits, Who Benefits, and Who Gets the Nest,” p. 153, Science News 153:153-55).