Vadim Birstein - The Perversion of Knowledge

193. In fact, on January 20, 1944, Ivan Nikishov was awarded the Order of Hero of Socialist Labor, a civilian analogue of the military Order of Hero (Kokurin, A., and N. Petrov, “NKVD-NKGB-SMERSH: struktura, funktsii, kadry: Stat’ya chetvertaya (1944–1945)” [NKVD-NKGB-SMERSH: Structure, function, and cadre: The fourth article, 1944–1945], Svobodnaya Mysl 9 (1997): 94 (in Russian).

194. Lattimore, O., “New Road to Asia,” National Geographic Magazine 86 (6) (1944): 657.

195. Conquest, Kolyma , pp. 68–69. It is possible that later, in 1953, Gridasova-Nikishova worked on the staff of Vladimir Prison: Some of the prisoner cards were signed “Gridasova” by a person who filled out the card (see Viktorova’s prisoner card).

196. Conquest, Kolyma , pp. 206–212.

197. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago , vol. 2, pp. 497–500. Ida Varpakhovskaya, a Kolyma survivor, an actress, and the wife of the famous imprisoned theater director Leonid Varpakhovsky, published memoirs with many details on the life of the Nikishovs’ slaves (Varpakhovskaya, I., “Iz vospominanii kolymskoi ‘Traviaty’” [From the memoirs of Kolyma’s “Traviata”], in Korallov, M. M., ed., Teatr Gulaga [The Gulag’s Theater] (Moscow: Memorial, 1995), pp. 65–79 (in Russian).

198. Varpakhovskaya, “Iz vospominanii,” p. 73.

199. Wallace, Soviet Asia Misson , p. 127.

200. Varpakhovskaya, “Iz vospominanii,” p. 73.

201. Lattimore, “New Road to Asia,” pp. 648, 673.

202. Lipper, Elinor, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (Chicago: Henry Regnery,1951), pp. 266–269.

203. Lysenko, Trofim D., Heredity and Its Variability , trans. Theodosius Dobzhansky (New York: King’s Crown Press, 1946).

204. Dunn’s letter to Michael Lerner, dated June 29, 1945; cited in Krementsov, Stalinist Science , p. 122.

205. Krementsov, N. L., “‘Amerikanskaya pomoshch’ sovetskoi genetike, 1945–1947” [“American help” to Soviet genetics, 1945–1947], Vestnik Instituta Istorii Estestvoznaniya i Tekhniki 3 (1996): 25–41 (in Russian); Krementsov, N. L., “A ‘Second Front’ in Soviet Genetics: The International Dimension of the Lysenko Controversy, 1944–1947,” Journal of the History of Biology 29 (1996): 229–250.

206. A letter of J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI director, to George E. Allen, dated May 29, 1946, reproduced in Moynihan, Daniel P., Secrecy: The American Experience (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), pp. 63–68.

207. Weinstein and Vassiliev, The Haunted Wood , pp. 68–69, and 234–235.

208. Moynihan, Secrecy , p. 124.

209. Sgovio, Dear America , pp. 250–251.

210. Antonov-Ovseenko, Anton, Vragi naroda [Enemies of People] (Moscow: Intellekt, 1996), pp. 286–288 (in Russian).

211. Ibid., p. 287.

212. About the new situation within the former KGB see Waller, Secret Empire, and Knight, Amy, Spies Without Cloaks: The KGB’s Successors (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).

213. Albats, The State , p. 462.

214. Andrew and Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield , p. 13.

215. Mlechin, Leonid, Yevgenii Primakov: Istoriya odnoi kar’ery [Yevgenii Primakov: History of the Career] (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 1999), p. 51 (in Russian).

216. Ibid., p. 61.

217. Ibid., pp. 64–79.

218. Ibid., p. 89.

219. Ibid., pp. 81–86.

220. Ibid., pp. 86–88.

221. Ibid., pp. 98–110.

222. Primakov, Yevgenii, ed. Ocherki Istorii Rossiiskoi Vneshnei Razvedki [Essays on the History of the Russian Foreign Intelligence] (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniya, 1995–1997), vols. 1–3 (in Russian). The fourth volume of this series was published in 1999 under the editorship of Vyacheslav Trubnikov.

223. Mlechin, Yevgenii Primakov , pp. 21, 573.

224. Ibid., pp. 218–223.

225. Knight, Spies , pp. 115–117.

226. C. L., “Hopes Ride on Manager with a Scientist’s Mind,” Nature 395 (1998): 209.

227. Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge , p. 364.

228. Tolz, Russian Academicians , p. 136.

229. For instance, Nikolskii, G. V., “O nekotorykh obshchikh voprosakh biologii”[On some general questions of biology], Bulletin Moskovskogo Obshchestva Ispytatelei Prirody, Seriya biologicheskaya 18 (2) (1953): 48–56 (in Russian).

230. Iovchuk was the propaganda secretary of the Belorussian Communist Party Central Committee. In summer 1949, he was demoted to a post at the Department of Dialectic and Historical Materialism at the Urals State University in the city of Sverdlovsk (Kostyrchenko, Out of the Red Shadows , p. 218).

231. Yaroshevsky, M. G., “Stalinism i sud’by sovetskoi nauki” [Stalinism and the fate of Soviet science], in Yaroshevskii, Repressirovannaya Nauka , p. 29. During the same election of 1946, Chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers Vyacheslav Molotov also gained the status of Honorable Academician (Reiss, Molotov Remembers , p. 316). Like most Bolshevik leaders, Molotov was poorly educated: He was dismissed from his gymnasium, then graduated from a reaschulle (a secondary school), and in 1916 enrolled in the Saint Petersburg Polytechnic Institute. However, he did this only in order to avoid the draft and as a cover for underground revolutionary activity (Reiss, Molotov Remembers , p. xiii).

232. Aleksandrov, G. F., “Bor’ba mnenii i svoboda kritiki—zakon razvitiya peredovoi nauki” [A struggle of opinions and freedom of criticism—a law of the development of progressive science], Priroda 6 (1952): 3–12 (in Russian).

233. Kostyrchenko, Out of the Red Shadows , p. 24.

234. In May 1941, Zhdanov was replaced in this position by the First Secretary of Moscow Regional and Moscow City Committees Andrei Shcherbakov. At the time Shcherbakov also headed the Main Political Directorate of the Red Army and the Sovinformburo and was a secretary of the Central Committee. Zhdanov continued to be the first secretary of the Leningrad Regional Party Committee and a Politburo member. In summer 1944, Zhdanov moved to Moscow and actively intrigued against Aleksandrov. After Shcherbakov’s death in 1945, Zhdanov resumed his position as the Central Committee’s secretary of ideology. In July 1948, Stalin criticized Zhdanov at a Politburo meeting, and Zhdanov was removed from his position as second secretary. He died soon after this meeting.

235. Cited in Kostyrchenko, Out of the Red Shadows , p. 23. See also Stetsovsky, Istoriya , vol. 1, pp. 465–486.

236. For more details see, for instance, Out of the Red Shadows , pp. 212–218.

237. Ibid., p. 218.

238. Yaroshevsky, M. G., “Stalinism i sud’by sovetskoi nauki,” p. 29.

239. Zubok, Vladislav, and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 87–88; Murphy et. al ., Battleground Berlin , pp. 40–41, 447–448.

240. Andrew and Gordievsky, KGB , pp. 425–426.

241. Weinstein and Vassiliev, The Haunted Wood , pp. 68–69, 291–297.

242. Dzhirkvelov, Secret Servant , pp. 136–139.

243. Zubok, V., “Soviet Intelligence and the Cold War: The ‘Small’ Committee of Information in 1952–1953,” Diplomatic History (Winter 1995).

244. Mlechin, Yevgenii Primakov , p. 209.

245. Ibid., p. 211. Under President Putin, Russian diplomacy became completely controlled by the SVR: In May 2000, the SVR Head Vyacheslav Trubnikov (see Table 1.1) was dismissed and appointed the first deputy foreign minister of Russia.