Adam Zamoyski - Phantom Terror - The Threat of Revolution and the Repression of Liberty 1789-1848

To the young in particular, the sudden explosion of energy in the French capital held enormous appeal, and it set their collective imagination on fire. ‘A visionary world seemed to open up’ to the young poet Robert Southey, and according to Mary Wollstonecraft ‘all the passions and prejudices of Europe were instantly set afloat’. The news from Paris was greeted with almost religious fervour, and William Wordsworth spoke for many of his generation when he wrote: ‘Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive’. The Second Coming could hardly have elicited greater ecstasy.5

The excitement was driven by emotions of an essentially spiritual nature – similar to those which would drive so many young people in the second half of the twentieth century to embrace without questioning a ‘socialism’ they were usually at a loss to define, but which they believed held out the promise of a better world. Convinced as they were that it was the ‘right’ way forward for humanity, many of those who hailed the French Revolution would not only seek to justify its worst atrocities, they would brand those who did not share their faith as ‘enemies of the people’.

To these, news of the upheaval in Paris came not only as a terrible shock, but as confirmation that a long-prepared onslaught on the ideological basis of their universe had begun. Monarchs reacted with predictable outrage. The British chargé d’affaires in Vienna reported that the Austrian Emperor went into ‘transports of passion’ and uttered ‘the most violent Menaces of Vengeance’ when he heard the news. The King of Sweden had not been able to sleep after reading reports of the goings-on in Paris, and the Empress of Russia had stamped her foot in rage.6

Barely more measured were the reactions of many who had less to lose. ‘If the French delirium is not properly repressed, it may prove more or less fatal to the heart of Europe,’ the philosopher Baron Melchior Grimm warned, ‘for the pestilential air must inevitably ravage and destroy everything it approaches.’ In England, Edmund Burke thundered against the ‘Venom’ being spewed out by ‘the Reptile Souls moving in the Dirt of the Obscure Vices in which they were generated’, as he described the French revolutionaries. Even in faraway North America the news from France divided those who, in the words of Edmund Quincy of Massachusetts, saw it ‘as another Star in the East – the harbinger of peace and good-will on earth’, from those for whom it was ‘a baleful comet that “from its horrid hair shook pestilence and war”, shed its influences for good or evil upon the New World as well as the Old’. ‘It inspired terror or joy, according as the eyes which watched its progress looked for its issues of life or of death in faith or in fear,’ he concluded.7

A notable feature of the gulf which had opened up was that while the discussion, if one can call it that, was conducted between people of considerable intellectual standing, it was carried on along almost entirely irrational lines. While partisans of the Revolution praised its vices as well as its virtues in poetic and quasi-religious terms, its enemies responded in the language of the Inquisition.

In his Reflections on the Revolution in France , published in 1790, Edmund Burke warned that everything being perpetrated in Paris violated fundamental laws and undermined the twin pillars of religion and property on which the social order of Europe rested. History would vindicate his prediction that the road the revolutionaries had taken would lead them to commit untold horrors and to the eventual emergence of a brutal dictatorship. But long before this happened, his tone would change and his diatribes against the Revolution degenerate into hysterical rants.

Another prominent defender of the ancien régime , the Savoyard nobleman, lawyer, diplomat and philosopher Joseph de Maistre, propounded a spiritual view of the events. A devout Catholic, he had in his youth been an enthusiastic supporter of the American Revolution, and even welcomed the fall of the Bastille before identifying the evil lurking behind it. He now condemned the entire canon of the Enlightenment, arguing that God presided over a natural order of things, departure from which was perverse, and that the Catholic faith was ‘the mother of all good and real knowledge in the world’. He believed the eighteenth century would come to be seen by posterity ‘as one of the most shameful epochs in the history of the human mind’. As for the French Revolution, it was, according to him, an ‘inexplicable delirium’, ‘an atrocity’, ‘an impudent prostitution of reason’ and an insult to the concepts of justice and virtue. ‘There is in the French revolution,’ he concluded, ‘a satanic character which distinguishes it from everything we have seen and, perhaps from everything we will ever see.’8

Like those of Burke, which sold in great quantities and were translated into the principal European languages, the writings of Maistre echoed and gave form to the feelings of many who had viewed the progress of the Enlightenment with suspicion. As they watched events unfold during the 1790s they were confirmed in all their earlier objections to the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau and other eighteenth-century philosophers. With the benefit of hindsight, they could chart how the spread of their teachings had led to the catastrophe which had shattered their world.

While some saw it as an unfortunate process fostered by impious or misguided intellectuals, others saw it all in terms of a conspiracy against not only the established political order but against the very bases of European society and civilisation. Voltaire had waged a lifelong war which verged on the pathological against the Catholic Church, which he referred to as ‘ l’Infâme ’ (the infamous one). His influence was clearly discernible in the virulently anti-Christian tenor of the Revolution. Some related this not just to his writings and the secularising influences of the Enlightenment: Louis de Bonald saw everything that had happened since the first breaths of the Reformation in the fifteenth century as a gradual decline into the abyss. Others reached further back, tracing the rot to Jan Hus, John Wycliffe and the Lollards.9

There were those who pointed out that the date of the storming of the Bastille, 14 July, was the same as that on which Jerusalem fell to the First Crusade in 1099, suggesting some kind of revenge of the Infidel. To the more fanciful, the fall of the French monarchy was the outcome of ‘the curse of the Templars’, who had been destroyed by it nearly five centuries earlier. The Templars no longer existed, but there was a theory that while awaiting execution in the Bastille in 1314, the last Grand Master of the Order had founded four Masonic lodges to avenge its dissolution and his death on the French royal family.

Freemasonry had originated in Scotland at the beginning of the eighteenth century, spread to every country in Europe, and grew rapidly. As the movement attracted the intellectual elites, its membership was overwhelmingly secularist and freethinking, a loose brotherhood vaguely dedicated to the betterment of humanity through the spreading of reason, education and humanist values. Its members were grouped in lodges which met to listen to lectures and discuss anything from social problems to the latest fashions in the arts. Some came together for purposes of social networking, others in order to pursue more sensual interests such as drinking or sex. There was ritual involved, much of it extremely silly, purporting to have medieval or even Biblical origins. Freemasons often met in temples, crypts or artificial grottos, which added a whiff of the occult, and initiation rites involved blindfolding novices who were made to swear solemn oaths amid a panoply of gothick props, including cloaks, daggers, axes, burning braziers and cups of red wine symbolising blood – although real blood was sometimes drawn too.