A Dictionary of British and Irish History

After a British army in N America surrendered at YORKTOWN (1781), PATRIOT members of the Irish Parliament (e.g., Henry GRATTAN; earl of CHARLEMONT) recruited Volunteer support and pressed for greater autonomy for Ireland. The result was the CONSTITUTION OF 1782. See also PROTESTANT ASCENDANCY; BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, 2ND EARL OF.

AMERY, LEOPOLD(b. 22 Nov. 1873 at Gorakhpur, North Western Provinces, India; d. 16 Sept. 1955 at London, England, aged 81). As a writer and editor in Great Britain for The Times 1899–1909, concerned with SOUTH AFRICA, Amery admired the imperial policies of Alfred MILNER. He became a prominent champion of the BRITISH EMPIRE. A Conservative MP 1911–45, he held government posts from 1917. As colonial secretary 1924–9, and also dominions secretary 1925–9, he supported ‘imperial preference’ (see TARIFF REFORM) and advocated the idea of a ‘co‐operative Commonwealth’. He was secretary of state for INDIA and BURMA 1940–5. See also DOMINION; COMMONWEALTH. AMICABLE GRANTIn England, a TAX instigated in 1525 by Thomas WOLSEY for King HENRY VIII, to fund an invasion of France. It was imposed by ROYAL PREROGATIVE, rather than granted by Parliament, and was to be levied on clergy and laity. Following soon after other heavy taxation, the collection (from April) generated popular resistance and was abandoned (by 13 May). AMIENS, PEACE OFA truce between Great Britain and France concluded at Amiens, France, on 27 March 1802 (negotiated for the ministry of Henry ADDINGTON). It halted hostilities during the NAPOLEONIC WARS by fudging controversial strategic issues. Terms included the abandonment by the British Crown of its 14th‐century claim to the French Crown (see FRANCE, CLAIMS BY RULERS OF ENGLAND). French intervention in Italy and Switzerland, coupled with Britain’s refusal to evacuate MALTA, sparked renewed conflict in May 1803. AMRITSAR MASSACREA notorious incident in the city of Amritsar (NW India) on 13 April 1919 (also known as the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre), when a British commander, Brigadier‐General Sir Reginald Dyer, ordered troops (mostly Indians) to fire on a large crowd of protestors in a walled recreation ground. It happened soon after wartime emergency powers in India had been extended (so‐called Rowlatt Act), and in reprisal for recent violent protests in Amritsar. Possibly 500–600 people were killed and 1500 were wounded. The event discredited British rule in INDIA. ANARCHISMA political creed based on the belief that government is evil and can be abolished. Anarchists reject restraints on spontaneous action and generally favour violent revolution. Developed in 19th‐century Europe, the doctrine spread from foreign exiles to a few British extremists. ANARCHYTerm used to describe conditions in NORMANDY and England (especially the latter) during struggles to oust STEPHEN as ruler (in Normandy 1138–44, in England 1139–54). Based on contemporary accounts, the term suggests a total breakdown of authority. Modern study has shown that in England, each side exercised some authority over extensive areas (including issue of CURRENCY), and that disorder was often circumscribed (e.g., by local pacts between opponents). See also MATILDA; DAVID I. ANCIENT CONSTITUTIONA concept formulated in England in the early 17th century, particularly by Edward COKE (d. 1634), which claimed that royal power had been regulated by COMMON LAW since at least the time of King ÆTHELBERT of Kent (d. 616). Englishmen therefore possessed inherited liberties. The concept influenced opponents of JAMES VI/I and CHARLES I, who by contrast claimed unfettered prerogative rights of divine origin (see DIVINE RIGHT MONARCHY). ANCIENT ORDER OF HIBERNIANSA Catholic men's charitable society (with women's branch), which was refounded in the USA in 1838. After Church condemnation (for secrecy) was lifted in 1904, the small Irish branch was reorganized by Joseph DEVLIN, who presided over its controlling ‘Board of Erin' 1905–34. The Order expanded rapidly, mainly in N Ireland, to 60,000 members in 1909, 120,000 in 1915. They provided a ‘power base' for Devlin and the IRISH PARLIAMENTARY PARTY, and countered the Protestant ORANGE ORDER. Membership fell rapidly from c.1970. ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT(b. 9 June 1836 at London, England; d. 17 Dec. 1917 at Aldeburgh, Suffolk, England, aged 81). Elizabeth Garrett joined the LANGHAM PLACE CIRCLE in the mid 1850s. Inspired by Elizabeth Blackwell, an English woman with a US medical degree, she qualified as an apothecary (1865), obtained a medical degree from Paris University (1870), and joined the British Medical Association (1873), making her England’s first qualified woman doctor. She also founded the New Hospital for Women (1868) and promoted women’s medical education. (She married in 1871.) In retirement Anderson became England’s first woman mayor (1908). See also FAWCETT, MILLICENT; WOMEN’S MOVEMENT 1850s TO 1918, GREAT BRITAIN. ANDERSON, JOHN(b. 8 July 1882 at Edinburgh, Scotland; d. 4 Jan. 1958 at London, England, aged 75). A distinguished British civil servant, Anderson served as governor of Bengal, INDIA, 1932–7, and was an Independent MP 1938–50 (for Scottish universities). From 1938 he contributed to preparations for wartime conditions in the UK. A prefabricated domestic bomb shelter which he commissioned (Nov. 1938) became known as the ‘Anderson shelter’. After the outbreak of WORLD WAR II, he was appointed home secretary (Sept. 1939). He then dominated civil administration as lord president of the Council with responsibility for economic mobilization (1940–3) and as chancellor of the Exchequer (1943–5). Anderson was created Viscount Waverley in 1952. ANEIRIN(fl. in early 7th century). A Welsh ‘early poet'. His poem Y Gododdin (‘The Gododdin') celebrates an unsuccessful raid c.600 by Britons from EDINBURGH in GODODDIN (SE Scotland) against SAXONS probably at Catterick (N Yorkshire, England). Originally composed in Primitive Welsh, it survives in Old Welsh (9th–11th centuries) copied c.1250. See also POST‐ROMAN BRITAIN; WELSH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. ANGEVIN EMPIRE

Historians’ term for territories in France and the British Isles accumulated in the 11th–12th centuries by the ‘Angevins’, i.e., counts of Anjou (vassals of the king of France).

Count Fulk IV (ruled 1068–1109) conquered Touraine, and Fulk V (1109–29) acquired Maine by marriage to an heiress. His son Geoffrey Plantagenet acquired a claim to NORMANDY and England through marriage (1128) to MATILDA, daughter of HENRY I. Geoffrey succeeded as count in 1129 (father’s abdication) and conquered Normandy (1142–4; see STEPHEN).

Angevin rule reached its zenith under Geoffrey’s son Henry ( see HENRY II), who was duke of Normandy from 1150 (grant from father) and count of Anjou (by hereditary succession) from 1151. From 1152, he was also duke of Aquitaine (through marriage to ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE), and from 1154 king of England (succession by treaty). Between 1166 and 1178 he established control over Brittany, and in 1171 assumed the lordship of Ireland ( see HENRY II AND IRELAND). In 1174 he imposed terms on the king of Scotland ( see FALAISE, TREATY OF).

Henry and his successors RICHARD and JOHN allowed territories to retain their customs and governments. John lost most of his French lands in 1202–4 (seized by Philip II of France), retaining only the CHANNEL ISLANDS, part of Poitou and GASCONY (latter two territories from duchy of Aquitaine). Poitou was lost in 1224, though attempts were made to recover it in 1225–7, 1230 and 1242 ( see HENRY III). See also NORMAN EMPIRE; FRANCE, CLAIMS BY RULERS OF ENGLAND.