Ice Adhesion

1 Cover

2 Title Page

3 Copyright Page This edition first published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com . All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions . Wiley Global Headquarters 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com . Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN 978-1-119-64037-0 Cover image: Pixabay.Com Cover design by Russell Richadson

4 Preface

5 Part 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF ICE FORMATION AND CHARACTERIZATION 1 Factors Influencing the Formation, Adhesion, and Friction of Ice 1 Factors Influencing the Formation, Adhesion, and Friction of Ice Michael J. Wood and Anne-Marie Kietzig* Department of Chemical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Canada Abstract Humans have faced the challenges and opportunities afforded by ice accumulation throughout our collective history. From the icing over of hunting plains to the accretion of ice on aeroplanes, the challenge of frozen water has shaped us as a species. In many ways, overcoming the challenge of surface ice accumulation is inextricably linked to human modernity. We have reached a point in engineering history where some of the most important unanswered questions cannot be fully resolved without the management and prevention of surface ice. These engineering challenges include: the complete implementation of renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, and the requisite electrical transmission lines, the ushering in of the age of environmentally-friendly air travel, including the elimination of de-icing fluids, and the introduction of fully autonomous vehicles which will require sensors that are perpetually free of surface ice and roadways that are reliably ice free. This chapter begins with a brief history of ice on Earth, followed by an overview of how humans have faced ice accumulation in the past and how advances in technology during the first two Industrial Revolutions have facilitated our understanding of ice formation. Next, we discuss the ice formation process in terms of embryo nucleation. This is followed by a discussion of the factors influencing ice adhesion, specifically the important relationship between surface morphology and ice adhesion strength. Finally, the origins of ice’s low friction is discussed in the last section. Keywords: Surface icing, ice on earth, wetting, ice ages, anti-icing technology, ice formation, ice nucleation, ice growth, ice adhesion, ice friction 1.1 A Brief History of Man and Ice 1.2 A Thermodynamically Designed Anti-Icing Surface 1.3 The Adhesion of Ice to Surfaces 1.4 The Sliding Friction of Ice 1.5 Summary References 2 Water and Ice Nucleation on Solid Surfaces 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Classical Nucleation Theory 2.3 Prospects 2.4 Summary Acknowledgement References 3 Physics of Ice Nucleation and Growth on a Surface 3.1 Ice Nucleation 3.2 Ice Growth 3.3 Ice Bridging Phenomenon 3.4 Summary References 4 Condensation Frosting 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Why Supercooled Condensation? 4.3 Inter-Droplet Freeze Fronts 4.4 Dry Zones and Anti-Frosting Surfaces 4.5 Summary and Future Directions References 5 The Role of Droplet Dynamics in Condensation Frosting 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Nucleation 5.3 Growth 5.4 Coalescence and Sweeping 5.5 Regeneration or Re-Nucleation 5.6 Inception of Freezing 5.7 Freezing Front Propagation 5.8 Ice Bridging 5.9 Frost Growth and Densification 5.10 Concluding Discussion Acknowledgments References 6 Defrosting Properties of Structured Surfaces 6.1 Introduction: Defrosting on Smooth Surfaces 6.2 Defrosting Heat Exchangers 6.3 Dynamic Defrosting on Micro-Grooved Surfaces 6.4 Dynamic Defrosting on Liquid-Impregnated Surfaces 6.5 Dynamic Defrosting on Nanostructured Superhydrophobic Surfaces 6.6 Summary and Future Directions References

6 Part 2: ICE ADHESION AND ITS MEASUREMENT 7 On the Relationship between Surface Free Energy and Ice Adhesion of Flat Anti-Icing Surfaces 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Types of Ice Formation 7.3 Work of Adhesion, Wettability and Surface Free Energy 7.4 Factors Affecting Ice Adhesion Strength and its Standardization 7.5 Effect of Water Contact Angle and Surface Free Energy Parameters on Ice Adhesion Strength 7.6 Summary References 8 Metrology of Ice Adhesion 8.1 Theory of Ice Adhesion to a Surface 8.2 Centrifugal Force Method 8.3 Peak Force Method 8.4 Tensile Force Method 8.5 Standard Procedure for Ice Adhesion Measurement 8.6 Summary References 9 Tensile and Shear Test Methods for Quantifying the Ice Adhesion Strength to a Surface Glossary 9.1 Introduction 9.2 About Ice, Impact Ice, and Ice Adhesion Tests 9.3 Review of Ice Adhesion Test Methods 9.4 Prospects 9.5 Summary Acknowledgements References 10 Comparison of Icephobic Materials through Interlaboratory Studies 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Icephobicity and Anti-Icing Surfaces 10.3 Ice Formation and Properties 10.4 Testing Ice Adhesion 10.5 Comparing Low Ice Adhesion Surfaces with Interlaboratory Tests 10.6 Concluding Remarks References

7 Part 3: METHODS TO MITIGATE ICE ADHESION 11 Mechanisms of Surface Icing and Deicing Technologies 11.1 A Brief Description of Icing and Ice Adhesion 11.2 Examples of Mathematical Modeling of Icing on Various Static or Moving Surfaces 11.3 New Applications of Common Deicing Compounds 11.4 Plasma-Based Deicing Systems 11.5 Functional Super (Hydrophilic) or Wettable Polymeric Coatings to Resist Icing 11.6 Nanoscale Carbon Coatings with/without Resistive Heating 11.7 Antifreeze Proteins 11.8 Summary and Perspectives References 12 Icephobicities of Superhydrophobic Surfaces 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Anti-Icing Property of Superhydrophobic Surfaces under Dynamic Flow Conditions 12.3 Analytical Models of Depinning Force on Superhydrophobic Surfaces 12.4 Analytical Models of Contact Angles on Superhydrophobic Surfaces 12.