Tim Bruton - Photovoltaics from Milliwatts to Gigawatts

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Growth of annual installations in the world photovoltaics market ...Figure 6.2 Cumulative installed capacity for on‐ and off‐grid photovoltaics ...Figure 6.3 German cities offering significant FITs (circle area) in 1999 [14...Figure 6.4 Relative proportions of centralised and distributed on‐grid photo...Figure 6.5 Cumulative installation of centralised and distributed on‐grid ph...Figure 6.6 Installation of grid‐connected centralised and decentralised phot...Figure 6.7 Structure of a typical solar PPA, as described by the US Environm...Figure 6.8 El Romero Solar Field, Atacama Desert, ChileFigure 6.9 RPS targets for four leading US states plus Washington, DC [29]...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Growth of a silicon ribbon by the dendritic web process [5]Figure 7.2 Schematic of EFG growth equipment [5]Figure 7.3 Growth of a silicon string ribbon [5]Figure 7.4 Schematic of the RGS process [5]Figure 7.5 Progress in cell efficiency of direct wafer solar cells [32]Figure 7.6 Amorphous silicon structureFigure 7.7 Schematic of a single‐junction p‐i‐n amorphous silicon solar cell...Figure 7.8 Spectral response of a typical stabilised a‐Si/a‐Si/Ge tandem sol...Figure 7.9 Sanyo’s ‘Solar Ark’ with amorphous silicon panelsFigure 7.10 Throughput and yield of the Solarex a‐Si module manufacturing pl...Figure 7.11 Efficiency of a crystalline silicon film with a minority carrier...Figure 7.12 Interconnection scheme for crystalline silicon on glass [92]Figure 7.13 Schematic structure of a CIS or CIGS solar cellFigure 7.14 Annual shipments of thin‐film photovoltaic modules by technology...Figure 7.15 Topaz Solar Farm, Sacramento, CA with 550 MWp of First Solar mod...Figure 7.16 Mechanism for a DSSC [164]Figure 7.17 Schematic of a bulk heterojunction OPV, showing the interpenetra...Figure 7.18 Best solar cell efficiencies with time for different thin‐film t...Figure 7.19 Perovskite crystallographic structure, where A is a short‐chain ...Figure 7.20 External quantum efficiency (EQE) of PVK and silicon solar cells...Figure 7.21 Flatcon 500× receiver at FhG.ISE [182]

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Structure of an LGBC solar cellFigure 8.2 Structure of a PESC [27]Figure 8.3 Modelled efficiency versus wafer thickness for varying degrees of...Figure 8.4 Structure of a PERL silicon solar cell [32]Figure 8.5 Total reflectance from an aluminium‐coated silicon oxide/nitride ...Figure 8.6 Q.ANTUM PERC solar cell [42]Figure 8.7 Conventional PERC cell with (a) full rear‐surface aluminium cover...Figure 8.8 Bifacial 8.27 kWp photovoltaic noise barrier installed in Aubrugg...Figure 8.9 Trina Solar Duomax Twin 60 bifacial glass–glass moduleFigure 8.10 Effect of oxygen and boron doping on the relative loss of minori...Figure 8.11 Structure of a HIT cell with n type silicon wafer and passivatin...Figure 8.12 Structure of an IBC‐SHJ cell [95]Figure 8.13 Quantum efficiency and reflectance spectra for the 26.3% HJ‐IBC ...Figure 8.14 Cross‐section of a rear‐contact solar cell with point diffusions...Figure 8.15 A typical SunPower installation with bifacial modules tracked to...Figure 8.16 Two‐dimensional schematic diagram of an ANU/Trina Solar IBC cell...Figure 8.17 Schematic process for assembling a triple‐junction solar cell on...Figure 8.18 Proof‐of‐concept monolithic perovskite on an SHJ solar cell [127...Figure 8.19 Absorption profile of an optimised perovskite silicon tandem cel...Figure 8.20 Relative severity of different modes of module failure as a perc...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Projected growth of global electricity demand 2000–2060, accordin...

1 Cover Page

2 Photovoltaics from Milliwatts to Gigawatts

3 Photovoltaics from Milliwatts to Gigawatts

4 Copyright

5 Dedication

6 Preface

7 Table of Contents

8 Begin Reading

9 Index

10 WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

1 ii

2 iii

3 iv

4 v

5 xii

6 xiii

7 1

8 2

9 3

10 4

11 5

12 6

13 7

14 8

15 9

16 10

17 11

18 12

19 13

20 14

21 15

22 16

23 17

24 18

25 19

26 20

27 21

28 22

29 23

30 24

31 25

32 26

33 27

34 28

35 29

36 30

37 31

38 32

39 33

40 34

41 35

42 36

43 37

44 38

45 39

46 40

47 41

48 42

49 43

50 44

51 45

52 46

53 47

54 48

55 49

56 50

57 51

58 52

59 53

60 54

61 55

62 56

63 57

64 58

65 59

66 60

67 61

68 62

69 63

70 64

71 65

72 66

73 67

74 68

75 69

76 70

77 71

78 72

79 73

80 74

81 75

82 76

83 77

84 78

85 79

86 80

87 81

88 82

89 83

90 84

91 85

92 86

93 87

94 88

95 89

96 90

97 91

98 92

99 93

100 94

101 95

102 96

103 97

104 98

105 99

106 100

107 101

108 102

109 103

110 104

111 105

112 106

113 107

114 108

115 109

116 110

117 111

118 112

119 113

120 114

121 115

122 116

123 117

124 118

125 119

126 120

127 121

128 122

129 123

130 124

131 125

132 126

133 127

134 128

135 129

136 130

137 131

138 132

139 133

140 134

141 135

142 136

143 137

144 138

145 139

146 140

147 141

148 142

149 143

150 144

151 145

152 146

153 147

154 148

155 149

156 150

157 151

158 152

159 153

160 154

161 155

162 156

163 157

164 158

165 159

166 160

167 161

168 162

169 163

170 164

171 165

172 166

173 167

174 168

175 169

176 170

177 171

178 172

179 173

180 174

181 175

182 176

183 177

184 178

185 179

186 180

187 181

188 182

189 183

190 184

191 185

192 186

193 187

194 188

195 189

196 190

197 191

198 192

199 193

200 194

201 195

202 196

203 197

204 198

205 199

206 200

207 201

208 202

209 203

210 204

211 205

212 206

213 207

214 208

215 209

216 210

217 211

218 213

219 214

220 215

221 216

222 217

223 218

224 219

225 220

226 221

From the rising of the sun to the place where it sets, the name of the Lord is to be praised.

Psalm 113 v3 (NIV)

Tim Bruton

TMB Consulting

Woking, UK

This edition first published 2021

© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Tim Bruton to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.