Honey Bee Medicine for the Veterinary Practitioner

1 Cover

2 Title Page Honey Bee Medicine for the Veterinary Practitioner Edited by Terry Ryan Kane, DVM, MS A2 Bee Vet Ann Arbor, MI, USA Cynthia M. Faux, DVM, PhD, DACVIM‐LA The University of Arizona College of Veterinary Medicine Oro Valley, AZ, USA

3 Copyright Page

4 Dedication Page

5 List of ContributorsEditors Contributors

6 Acknowledgments

7 Honey Bee Medicine: A One Health Challenge One Health Issue: Planetary Health (Biodiversity and Climate Change) One Health Issue: Food Security One Health Issue: The Global Epidemic of Antimicrobial Resistance Our Challenge

8 Section I: Biology and Medical Foundations 1 Looking to Nature to Solve the Health Crisis of Honey Bees A Tenet of Medicine: Learn the Normal Good Genes Versus Good Lifestyle: The Varroa Story Good Genes Good Lifestyle Part 1: The Environment of a Wild Colony Part 2: Epidemiology for Bee Health: How Lifestyle Impacts Disease Spread Lessons from the Wild Bees References 2 The Superorganism and Herd Health for the Honey Bee Introduction Part 1: The Superorganism and Swarm Intelligence Part 2: Social Immunity: Bees as Their Own Doctors! Part 3: Herd Health for the Honey Bee References 3 Honey Bee Anatomy Introduction Head Thorax Abdomen Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Nervous System Digestive and Excretory System Glands References 4 Physiology of the Honey Bee – Principles for the Beekeeper and Veterinarian Part 1: Comparing Vertebrates and Bees Part 2: Communication in Honey Bees Conclusion References 5 The Honey Bee Queen The Queen's Function in the Hive Queen Development and Performance Queen Succession Queen Status Assessment Queen Replacement and Introduction Wrap Up References 6 Honey Bee Strains German or Black Bee Caucasian (or Gray) Bee Hygienic Bees Africanized Bee Defensive Bees References 7 Wild Bees: Diversity, Ecology, and Stressors of Non‐Apis Bees Bee Diversity and Distribution Diversity of Social Behavior Diversity of Life Cycles Abiotic Stressors to Wild Bees Biotic Stressors: Pathogens and Pests Conclusion Acknowledgements References 8 Honey Bee Nutrition Understanding the Honey Bee Superorganism Nutritional Requirements of a Hive Food Handling and Processing in the Hive Pollen Processing in the Hive Jelly as the Currency of Protein in the Hive Field Assessment of Colonies' Nutritional Status Supplementary Feeding of Colonies Bee “Health Products” References Further Reading 9 Honey Bee Microbiota and the Physiology of Antimicrobial Resistance Overview Antibiotics in Beekeeping The Honey Bee Gut Microbiome Impact of Antibiotics on the Honey Bee Microbiome Probiotics for Honey Bees Other Possible Impacts of Antibiotic Treatment on Honey Bee Health Antibiotic Resistance Conclusion Acknowledgments References 10 Honey Bee Pharmacology Introduction Principles of Pharmacology Pharmacology of the Individual Honey Bee as it Impacts the Hive Organism Pharmacodynamic Considerations in the Individual Honey Bee as they Impact the Hive Organism Pharmacologic Considerations for Honey Bees as Food‐Producing Animals Summary References

9 Section II: Beekeeping Principles for Veterinarians 11 Equipment and Safety Introduction Langstroth Hive Bee Space Components of a Hive Bottom Board Entrance Reducer Hive Body Frames Specialty Frames Queen Excluder Inner Cover Outer Cover Hive Stand Alternative Hives Tools of the Trade Personal Protective Equipment Veils Gloves Hive Tool Smoker Feeders Pollen Traps Safety Bee Stings Apiary Site Selection Pesticide Use Summary References 12 The Apiarist The Apiarist Classification by Operation Size Classification by Operation Type Example of a Year in the Life of a Commercial Beekeeper Summary 13 Basics of Apiary Design Effect of Apiary Location and Design on Honey Bee Health Considerations for Size of Beekeeping Operation References 14 Clinical Examination of a Honey Bee Hive Let's Open a Bee Hive 15 Veterinary Regulations Introduction Health Inspections Antibiotic Control Veterinary Feed Directive Background Antibiotic Approvals Antibiotic Resistance Veterinary Client Patient Relationships Required for a VFD The VFD Form Extra Label Drug Use Identity of Hives Size of the Beekeeping Operation and Duties of the Veterinarian Honey Bee Veterinary Regulations in Canada References 16 Medical Records Veterinary Client Patient Relationship (VCPR) Hive Records Medical Records Veterinary Feed Directives/Prescriptions Appendix 16.1A: Veterinary ‐ Client Management Agreement Appendix 16.1B: Sample Hive Record 17 Epidemiology and Biosecurity Apis mellifera Disease Epidemiology Biosecurity References Appendix 17.A Beekeeping Biosecurity and Best Practices Checklist

10 Section III: Honey Bee Diseases, Disorders, and Special Topics 18 Parasite Transmission Between Hives and Spillover to Non‐ Apis Pollinators Introduction Parasite Transmission Within an Apiary Parasite Transmission Between Apiaries Evidence of Parasite Spillover From Apis mellifera to Non‐ Apis Insects References 19 Colony Collapse Disorder and Honey Bee Health Introduction Was CCD a Unique and Significant Phenomenon? Searching for a Cause: Biotic Actors Interactive Effects Conclusions References 20 The Parasitic Mite Varroa destructor : History, Biology, Monitoring, and Management Introduction History Biology Monitoring Treatment Conclusion References 21 Honey Bee Viral Diseases Introduction Iflaviridae Family Dicistroviridae Family Viruses in Unassigned Families Honey Bee DNA Virus Recently Identified Honey Bee Viruses Multi‐virus Infection Transmission Pathways Viral Disease Management Virus Isolation, Detection, and Diagnoses References 22 Honey Bee Bacterial Diseases Distribution Economic Importance in North America European Foulbrood (EFB) American Foulbrood Diagnosis of Bacterial Diseases Reporting Treatment and Control Prevention and Control Conclusion References 23 Honey Bee Fungal Diseases Nosema Disease Chalkbrood Disease Stonebrood Disease Conclusion References 24 Honey Bee Parasites and Pests Tracheal Mites Wax Moths Hive Beetles Large Hive Beetle Tropilaelaps Asian Hornets Asian Giant Hornet Ants, Wasps and Hornets, and Robbing Bears, Raccoons, Skunks and Mice References 25 Pesticides Categorizing Pesticides Regulation of Pesticides Determining the Toxicity of Pesticides to Bees Preparing for Expected Pesticide Exposure Identifying and Reporting a Suspected Pesticide‐Related Bee‐Kill Recovering from a Bee‐Kill References 26 Diagnostic Sampling Sampling for Field AnalysisAmerican Foulbrood: Ropy Test Sampling for Laboratory Analysis References 27 Necropsy of a Hive Colony Phase Dynamics Performing a Hive Necropsy Seasonal Loss Analysis Overwinter (Dormant Phase) Colony Loss Weak Colony Starvation Spring Increase Phase Colony Loss Disease Loss Queen Replacement Summer (Peak Population) Loss Fall Population Decrease Phase Conclusion References 28 Common Husbandry Issues Some Common Questions Regarding Starting Beekeeping Common Mistakes Euthanizing a Colony Spring Issues and Considerations (Largely) Summer‐Early Fall Issues and Considerations Fall Issues and Considerations Overwintering References Further Reading 29 Queen Rearing and Bee Breeding US Commercial Queen Rearing Industry Benefits of Queen Rearing Queen Cell Building Grafting Banking Queens Queen Piping Keeping Good Records References 30 The Future Direction of Honey Bee Veterinary Medicine

11 Honey Bee MedicineResources

12 Notes on Editors and ContributorsEditors

13 Index

14 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 1 Table 1.1 Characteristics of wild honey bees ( Apis mellifera ) that differ fro...

2 Chapter 7Table 7.1 Summary of the species richness, distribution, and life‐history tra...

3 Chapter 8Table 8.1 A suggested essential amino acid ratio (relative to Histidine conte...Table 8.2 Known toxic nectars and pollens.Table 8.3 Pollens, by plant family, known to have overall good nutritional pr...