William Atkinson - The Complete Works of William Walker Atkinson

Judgment may be both analytic or synthetic in its processes; and it may be neither. When we compare a narrow concept with a broader one, as a part with a whole, the process is synthetic or an act of combination. When we compare a part of a concept with another concept, the process is analytic. When we compare concepts equal in rank or extent, the process is neither synthetic nor analytic. Thus in the statement that: "A horse is an animal," the judgment is synthetic; in the statement that: "some animals are horses," the judgement is analytic; in the statement that: "a man is a rational animal," the judgment is neither analytic nor synthetic.

Brooks says: "In one sense all judgments are synthetic. A judgment consists of the union of two ideas and this uniting is a process of synthesis. This, however, is a superficial view of the process. Such a synthesis is a mere mechanical synthesis; below this is a thought-process which is sometimes analytic, sometimes synthetic and sometimes neither analytic nor synthetic."

The same authority states: "The act of mind described is what is known as logical judgment . Strictly speaking, however, every intelligent act of the mind is accompanied with a judgment . To know is to discriminate and, therefore, to judge. Every sensation or cognition involves a knowledge and so a judgment that it exists. The mind cannot think at all without judging; to think is to judge. Even in forming the notions which judgment compares, the mind judges. Every notion or concept implies a previous act of judgment to form it: in forming a concept, we compare the common attributes before we unite them; and comparison is judgment. It is thus true that 'Every concept is a contracted judgment; every judgment an expanded concept.' This kind of judgment, by which we affirm the existence of states of consciousness, discriminate qualities, distinguish percepts and form concepts, is called primitive or psychological judgment ."

In Logical Judgment there are two aspects; i.e. , Judgment by Extension and Judgment by Intension. When we compare the two concepts horse and animal we find that the concept horse is contained in the concept animal and the judgment that " a horse is an animal " may be considered as a Judgment by Extension. In the same comparison we see that the concept horse contains the quality of animality , and in attributing this quality to the horse , we may also say " the horse is an animal ," which judgment may be considered as a Judgment by Intension. Brooks says: "Both views of Judgment are correct; the mind may reach its judgment either by extension or by intension. The method by extension is usually the more natural."

When a Judgment is expressed in words it is called a Proposition. There is some confusion regarding the two terms, some holding that a Judgment and a proposition are identical, and that the term "proposition" may be properly used to indicate the judgment itself. But the authorities who seek for clearness of expression and thought now generally hold that: " A Proposition is a Judgment expressed in words. " In the next chapter, in which we consider Propositions, we shall enter into a more extended consideration of the subject of Judgments as expressed in Propositions, which consideration we omit at this point in order to avoid repetition. Just as the respective subjects of Concepts and Terms necessarily blend into each other, so do the respective subjects of Judgments and Propositions. In each case, too, there is the element of the mental process on the one hand and the verbal expression of it on the other hand. It will be well to keep this fact in mind.

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We have seen that the first step of Deductive Reasoning is that which we call Concepts. The second step is that which we call Propositions.

In Logic, a Proposition is: "A sentence, or part of a sentence, affirming or denying a connection between the terms; limited to express assertions rather than extended to questions and commands." Hyslop defines a Proposition as: "any affirmation or denial of an agreement between two conceptions."

Examples of Propositions are found in the following sentences: "The rose is a flower;" "a horse is an animal;" "Chicago is a city;" all of which are affirmations of agreement between the two terms involved; also in: "A horse is not a zebra;" "pinks are not roses;" "the whale is not a fish;" etc., which are denials of agreement between the terms.

The Parts of a Proposition are: (1) the Subject , or that of which something is affirmed or denied; (2) the Predicate , or the something which is affirmed or denied regarding the Subject ; and (3) the Copula , or the verb serving as a link between the Subject and the Predicate.

In the Proposition: "Man is an animal," the term man is the Subject; the term an animal is the Predicate; and the word is , is the Copula. The Copula is always some form of the verb to be , in the present tense indicative, in an affirmative Proposition; and the same with the negative particle affixed, in a negative Proposition. The Copula is not always directly expressed by the word is or is not , etc., but is instead expressed in some phrase which implies them. For instance, we say "he runs," which implies "he is running." In the same way, it may appear at times as if the Predicate was missing, as in: "God is," by which is meant "God is existing." In some cases, the Proposition is inverted, the Predicate appearing first in order, and the Subject last, as in: "Blessed are the peacemakers;" or "Strong is Truth." In such cases judgment must be used in determining the matter, in accordance with the character and meaning of the terms.

An Affirmative Proposition is one in which the Predicate is affirmed to agree with the Subject. A Negative Proposition is one in which the agreement of the Predicate and Subject is denied . Examples of both of these classes have been given in this chapter.

Another classification of Propositions divides them in three classes, as follows (1) Categorical; (2) Hypothetical; (3) Disjunctive.

A Categorical Proposition is one in which the affirmation or denial is made without reservation or qualification, as for instance: "Man is an animal;" "the rose is a flower," etc. The fact asserted may not be true , but the statement is made positively as a statement of reality.

A Hypothetical Proposition is one in which the affirmation or denial is made to depend upon certain conditions, circumstances or suppositions, as for instance: "If the water is boiling-hot, it will scald;" or "if the powder be damp, it will not explode," etc. Jevons says: "Hypothetical Propositions may generally be recognized by containing the little word 'if;' but it is doubtful whether they really differ much from the ordinary propositions.... We may easily say that 'boiling water will scald,' and 'damp gunpowder will not explode,' thus avoiding the use of the word 'if.'"

A Disjunctive Proposition is one "implying or asserting an alternative," and usually containing the conjunction "or," sometimes together with "either," as for instance: "Lightning is sheet or forked;" "Arches are either round or pointed;" "Angles are either obtuse, right angled or acute."

Another classification of Propositions divides them in two classes as follows: (1) Universal; (2) Particular.

A Universal Proposition is one in which the whole quantity of the Subject is involved in the assertion or denial of the Predicate. For instance: "All men are liars," by which is affirmed that all of the entire race of men are in the category of liars, not some men but all the men that are in existence. In the same way the Proposition: "No men are immortal" is Universal, for it is a universal denial .