The Handbook of Solitude

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Second Edition

Edited by

Robert J. Coplan

Carleton University

Ottawa, ON

Canada

Julie C. Bowker

University at Buffalo, SUNY

Buffalo, NY

USA

Larry J. Nelson

Brigham Young University

Provo, UT

USA

This edition first published 2021

© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Edition History John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1e, 2014)

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Coplan, Robert J., 1967– editor. | Bowker, Julie C., editor. | Nelson, Larry J., editor. | Wiley‐Blackwell (Firm), publisher.

Title: The handbook of solitude : psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone / edited by Robert J. Coplan, Julie C. Bowker, Larry J. Nelson.

Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2021006669 (print) | LCCN 2021006670 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119576389 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119576426 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119576853 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Solitude. | Social isolation. | Loneliness.

Classification: LCC BF637.S64 H36 2021 (print) | LCC BF637.S64 (ebook) | DDC 155.9/2–dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021006669LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021006670

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © kasayizgi/Getty Images

Robert J. Coplan 1, Julie C. Bowker 2, and Larry J. Nelson 3

1Carleton University, Canada

2University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, USA

3Brigham Young University, USA

Almost all the chapters for the second edition of the Handbook of Solitude were written before anyone had heard of COVID‐19. The catastrophic implications of this global pandemic will be felt for years to come. Among the immediate effects of the lockdowns that were instituted in countries around the world to combat the spread of the virus, millions of individuals were thrust into unwanted solitude, or confined to home environments where, for various reasons, it was almost impossible to find a moment to spend alone. At the time of this writing, it is still not clear how long such conditions will continue. Never has it been more important to consider the causes and consequences of solitude for our well‐being and mental health. We are hopeful that the new edition of this volume contributes a wide range of informed perspectives to these ongoing discussions.

Rob Coplan, Julie Bowker, and Larry Nelson

The experience of solitude is a ubiquitous phenomenon. Over the course of the life span, humans experience solitude for many different reasons and subjectively respond to solitude with a wide range of reactions and consequences. Some people may retreat to solitude as a respite from the stresses of life, for quiet contemplation, to foster creative impulses, or to commune with nature. Others may suffer the pain and loneliness of social isolation, withdrawing or being forcefully excluded from social interactions.

These exemplars illustrate the complex nature of solitude and its relation to well‐being – and speak to what has been deemed the paradox of solitude . Indeed, theorists and researchers haver highlighted several different paradoxical aspects of solitude over the years, including: (1) despite the widely held beliefs that solitude serves self‐enhancing functions, it is often experienced as unwelcome and painful; (2) time alone can serve as both a reward (“me time”) and a punishment (time outs, solitary confinement); (3) solitude is viewed as both normative as well as a cause and consequence of psychopathology; (4) time alone can both interfere with and improve our relationships with others; and, as we will discuss in some detail herein; (5) solitude can simultaneously confer both costs and benefits for our well‐being (Coplan et al., 2018; Galanaki, 2015; Merton, 1958; Larson, 1999).

It should also be noted that there is little consensus among researchers as to how solitude should be conceptualized, operationalized, and assessed. For example, some perspectives emphasize physical separation from others, although in some cases this becomes operationalized in varied ways. For example, participants might be required simply to sit and think away from others (Wilson et al., 2014), whereas in other studies the focus is on activities while participants are physically alone (Leary et al., 2003). Of note, there is really no agreed‐upon physical “distance” from others that is mandated in order for an individual to be considered alone. Other perspectives focus on perceived separation from others (Larson, 1990). In this regard, participants might report feeling alone and lonely even in the presence of others (van Roekel et al., 2015). Coplan and Bowker (2017) described this conceptual distinction as solitude representing a state of mind rather than a state of being . Finally, as we will discuss later, contemporary technology now makes it possible (and common) for us to be physically alone but in the virtual presence of – and interacting with – many others (Hollis et al., 2020).