Joseph R. Badick - Flight Theory and Aerodynamics

1 Cover

2 Title Page

3 Copyright Page

4 Preface

5 About the Authors

6 About the Companion Website

7 1 Introduction to the Flight Environment INTRODUCTION BASIC QUANTITIES FORCES MASS SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES MOMENTS EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION LINEAR MOTION ROTATIONAL MOTION ENERGY AND WORK POWER FRICTION SYMBOLS KEY TERMS PROBLEMS

8 2 Atmosphere, Altitude, and Airspeed Measurement PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE ICAO STANDARD ATMOSPHERE ALTITUDE MEASUREMENT CONTINUITY EQUATION BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AIRSPEED MEASUREMENT SYMBOLS KEY TERMS

9 3 Structures, Airfoils, and Aerodynamic Forces AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES AIRFOILS Development of Forces on Airfoils AERODYNAMIC FORCE AERODYNAMIC PITCHING MOMENTS AERODYNAMIC CENTER ACCIDENT BRIEF: AIR MIDWEST FLIGHT 5481 SYMBOLS KEY TERMS

10 4 Lift INTRODUCTION TO LIFT ANGLE OF ATTACK BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY REYNOLDS NUMBER ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENT AIRFLOW SEPARATION STALL AERODYNAMIC FORCE EQUATIONS LIFT EQUATION AIRFOIL LIFT CHARACTERISTICS HIGH COEFFICIENT OF LIFT DEVICES EFFECT OF ICE AND FROST LIFT DURING FLIGHT MANEUVERS SYMBOLS KEY TERMS PROBLEMS

11 5 Drag INDUCED DRAG GROUND EFFECT LAMINAR FLOW AIRFOILS PARASITE DRAG DRAG EQUATION TOTAL DRAG LIFT‐TO‐DRAG RATIO Drag Reduction SYMBOLS KEY TERMS PROBLEMS

12 6 Jet Aircraft Performance THRUST‐PRODUCING AIRCRAFT THRUST‐REQUIRED CURVE PRINCIPLES OF PROPULSION THRUST‐AVAILABLE TURBOJET AIRCRAFT SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION FUEL FLOW THRUST‐AVAILABLE/THRUST‐REQUIRED CURVES ITEMS OF AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE VARIATIONS IN THE THRUST‐REQUIRED CURVE SYMBOLS KEY TERMS PROBLEMS

13 7 Propeller Aircraft Performance POWER AVAILABLE PRINCIPLES OF PROPULSION POWER‐REQUIRED CURVES ITEMS OF AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE VARIATIONS IN THE POWER‐REQUIRED CURVE SYMBOLS KEY TERMS

14 8 Takeoff Performance NORMAL TAKEOFF IMPROPER LIFTOFF REJECTED TAKEOFFS INITIAL CLIMB LINEAR MOTION FACTORS AFFECTING TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE SYMBOLS KEY TERMS

15 9 Landing Performance PRELANDING PERFORMANCE NORMAL LANDING IMPROPER LANDING PERFORMANCE HAZARDS OF HYDROPLANING LANDING DECELERATION, VELOCITY, AND DISTANCE LANDING EQUATIONS SYMBOLS KEY TERMS PROBLEMS

16 10 Slow‐Speed Flight REGION OF REVERSED COMMAND STALLS SPINS HAZARDS DURING SLOW‐SPEED FLIGHT – LOW‐LEVEL WIND SHEAR AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE IN LOW‐LEVEL WIND SHEAR HAZARDS DURING SLOW‐SPEED FLIGHT – WAKE TURBULENCE KEY TERMS

17 11 Maneuvering Performance GENERAL TURNING PERFORMANCE LOAD FACTOR THE V – G DIAGRAM (FLIGHT ENVELOPE) LOAD FACTOR AND FLIGHT MANEUVERS SYMBOLS KEY TERMS

18 12 Longitudinal Stability and Control DEFINITIONS OSCILLATORY MOTION WEIGHT AND BALANCE AIRPLANE REFERENCE AXES STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY DYNAMIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY PITCHING TENDENCIES IN A STALL LONGITUDINAL CONTROL SYMBOLS KEY TERMS

19 13 Directional and Lateral Stability STATIC DIRECTIONAL STABILITY DIRECTIONAL CONTROL MULTI‐ENGINE FLIGHT PRINCIPLES LATERAL STABILITY AND CONTROL STATIC LATERAL STABILITY LATERAL CONTROL DYNAMIC DIRECTIONAL AND LATERAL COUPLED EFFECTS SYMBOLS KEY TERMS

20 14 High‐Speed Flight THE SPEED OF SOUND HIGH‐SUBSONIC FLIGHT DESIGN FEATURES FOR HIGH‐SUBSONIC FLIGHT TRANSONIC FLIGHT SUPERSONIC FLIGHT SYMBOLS KEY TERMS

21 15 Rotary‐Wing Flight Theory MOMENTUM THEORY OF LIFT AIRFOIL SELECTION FORCES ON ROTOR SYSTEM THRUST DEVELOPMENT HOVERING FLIGHT GROUND EFFECT ROTOR SYSTEMS DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT IN FORWARD FLIGHT HIGH FORWARD SPEED PROBLEMS HELICOPTER CONTROL HELICOPTER POWER‐REQUIRED CURVES POWER SETTLING, SETTLING WITH POWER, AND VORTEX RING STATE AUTOROTATION DYNAMIC ROLLOVER

22 Answers to ProblemsCHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15

23 Bibliography GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS PERIODICALS PERSONAL INTERVIEW

24 Index

25 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 2 Table 2.1 Standard atmosphere table

2 Chapter 11Table 11.1 Load factors at various bank angles

1 Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Forces on an airplane in steady flight. Figure 1.2 Resolved forces on an airplane in steady flight. Figure 1.3 Vector of an eastbound aircraft. Figure 1.4 Vector of a north wind. Figure 1.5 Vector addition. Figure 1.6 Vector of an aircraft in a climb. Figure 1.7 Vectors of groundspeed and rate of climb. Figure 1.8 Balance Lever. Figure 1.9 Coefficients of friction for airplane tires on a runway.

2 Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Standard pressure. Figure 2.2 Properties of a standard atmosphere. Figure 2.3 Field elevation versus pressure altitude. Figure 2.4 Pressure altitude conversion and density altitude chart. Figure 2.5 Flow of air through a pipe. Figure 2.6 Pressure change in a venturi tube. Figure 2.7 Velocities and pressures on an airfoil superimposed on a venturi ... Figure 2.8 Flow around a symmetrical object. Figure 2.9 Schematic of a pitot–static airspeed indicator. Figure 2.10 Air data computer and pitot–static sensing. Figure 2.11 Blocked pitot tube and drain hole. Figure 2.12 Compressibility correction chart. Figure 2.13 Altitude and EAS to TAS correction chart. Figure 2.14 IAS, CAS, and TAS comparison.

3 Chapter 3 Figure 3.1 Modern transport category control surfaces. Figure 3.2 Helicopter flight controls. Figure 3.3 Differential ailerons. Figure 3.4 Frise‐type ailerons. Figure 3.5 Elevator movement. Figure 3.6 Adjustable horizontal stabilizer. Figure 3.7 Rudder movement. Figure 3.8 Common flap designs. Figure 3.9 Ground spoilers deployed. Figure 3.10 Trim tabs. Figure 3.11 Antiservo Tab. Figure 3.12 Secondary control surfaces and their location. Figure 3.13 Airfoil section. Figure 3.14 Airfoil terminology. Figure 3.15 Cambered versus symmetrical airfoil. Figure 3.16 Examples of airfoil design. Figure 3.17 NACA airfoils (NACA data). Figure 3.18 Effect of pressure disturbances on airflow around an airfoil. Figure 3.19 Velocity changes around an airfoil. Figure 3.20 Static pressure on an airfoil (a) at zero AOA, and (b) at a posi... Figure 3.21 Components of aerodynamic force. Figure 3.22 Pressure forces on (a) nonrotating cylinder and (b) rotating cyl... Figure 3.23 Pitching moments on a symmetrical airfoil (a) at zero AOA and (b... Figure 3.24 Pitching moments on a cambered airfoil: (a) zero lift, (b) devel... Figure 3.25 Flaps extended pitching moments. Figure 3.26 Beech 1900D pitch control system.

4 Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 Pressure distribution on an airfoil with AOA. Figure 4.2 Critical angle of attack, stall, and angle of attack indications.... Figure 4.3 Boundary layer composition. Figure 4.4 Laminar boundary layer. Figure 4.5 Turbulent boundary layer. Figure 4.6 Laminar and turbulent velocity profiles. Figure 4.7 Reynolds number effect on airflow on a smooth flat plate. Figure 4.8 Adverse pressure gradient.Figure 4.9 Airflow separation velocity profiles.Figure 4.10 Sphere wake drag: (a) smooth sphere, (b) rough sphere.Figure 4.11 Critical angle of attack and stall.Figure 4.12 C Lvs. AOA for a symmetrical airfoil.Figure 4.13 C Lvs. AOA for a cambered airfoil.Figure 4.14 Thickness effect.Figure 4.15 Camber effect.Figure 4.16 High‐ C Ldevices.Figure 4.17 Common leading edge high‐ C Ldevices.Figure 4.18 Effect of a camber changer on the C L– α curve.Figure 4.19 Micro‐vortex generators.Figure 4.20 Fixed slot at (a) low AOA and (b) high AOA.Figure 4.21 Effect of an energy adder on the C L– α curve.Figure 4.22 Effect of ice and frost on wings.Figure 4.23 Forces in a banked turn.Figure 4.24 Force vectors during a stabilized climb.

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Wing planform examples.Figure 5.2 Wing planform terminology.Figure 5.3 Aspect ratio.Figure 5.4 Wingtip vortices.Figure 5.5 Airflow about an infinite wing.Figure 5.6 Vertical velocity vectors of an infinite wing.Figure 5.7 Vertical velocity vectors of a finite wing.Figure 5.8 Airflow about a finite wing.Figure 5.9 Relative wind and force vectors on a finite wing.Figure 5.10 Induced drag versus velocity.Figure 5.11 Wingtip vortex at altitude versus near the ground.Figure 5.12 Downwash at altitude versus near the ground.Figure 5.13 T rand C Lcurves in ground effect.Figure 5.14 Ground effect.Figure 5.15 Comparison of drag characteristics of conventional and laminar f...Figure 5.16 Microscopic surface of a wing.Figure 5.17 Form drag.Figure 5.18 Interference drag at the wing root.Figure 5.19 Parasite drag–airspeed curve.Figure 5.20 C Lvs. AOA and C Dvs. AOA.Figure 5.21 Drag vector diagram.Figure 5.22 Total drag curve.Figure 5.23 L / D Max.Figure 5.24 Typical lift‐to‐drag ratios.Figure 5.25 Wingtip vortex reduction methods.Figure 5.26 Winglets.