Plastic and Microplastic in the Environment

1 Cover

2 Title Page

3 Copyright Page

4 List of Contributors

5 Preface

6 1 Sources, Occurrence, and Analysis of Microplastics in Freshwater Environments 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Sources of Microplastic 1.3 Pathways of Microplastics into Freshwater Environments 1.4 Microplastic Analytical Methods in Freshwater 1.5 Occurrence of Microplastic in Freshwater Environments 1.6 Conclusions and Recommendations Acknowledgments References

7 2 Microplastics in Freshwater Environments – With Special Focus on the Indian Scenario 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Nature and Production of Microplastics 2.3 Global Ecological Impacts of Plastic Pollution 2.4 Socio‐Economic Impacts of Plastic Pollution 2.5 Freshwater Plastic Pollution 2.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects References

8 3 Microplastic Contamination in the Marine Food Web 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Human Health Implication 3.3 Conclusion and Future Perspective Acknowledgements References

9 4 Microplastic in the Aquatic Ecosystem and Human Health Implications 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Sources and Food‐Chain Entry 4.3 Human Health Implications 4.4 Future Directions and Plausible Solutions 4.5 Conclusion References

10 5 Interactions of Microplastics Toward an Ecological Risk in Soil Diversity 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Microplastic‐Types and Properties 5.3 Microplastic Sources and Accumulation in Soil and Sediments 5.4 Migration of Microplastics’ Fate in Environment 5.5 Migration of Microplastics through Soil 5.6 Soil Analysis Methodology 5.7 Collection of Samples 5.8 Sample Preparation 5.9 Interactions and Impacts on Soil Diversity 5.10 Ecotoxicology of Microplastic 5.11 Mitigation Process of Microplastics 5.12 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References

11 6 Microplastics in the Air and Their Associated Health Impacts 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Microplastics in the Atmosphere 6.3 Measurement of Atmospheric Microplastics 6.4 Health Impacts of Microplastics 6.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References

12 7 Plastic Marine Litter in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Sea 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Analysis of Marine Litter Research Trends in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Sea Countries 7.3 Microplastics Abundance in the Marine Environment of the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Countries 7.4 Microplastics Characterization and Identification Techniques 7.5 Microplastics in Coastal Areas Affected by Rivers 7.6 Socioeconomic Impact of Plastic Marine Litter and Reduction Approaches 7.7 Knowledge Gaps and Recommendation for Future Research References

13 8 Advanced Detection Techniques for Microplastics in Different Environmental Media 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Methodology 8.3 Results 8.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References

14 9 Bio‐Based and Biodegradable Plastics as Alternatives to Conventional Plastics 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Definition and Classification of Plastics 9.3 Current Status of Conventional Plastics and Effect on Environment 9.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Conventional Plastics 9.5 Current Status of Biodegradable Plastics and Effect on Environment 9.6 How Plastic Degrades 9.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bio‐Based Plastics 9.8 National and International Agreements and Conventions to Control Use of Plastics 9.9 The Future of Plastics 9.10 Conclusions References

15 10 Biodegradable Plastics 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Biopolymers of Microbial Systems 10.3 Biopolymers of Plants and Higher Organisms 10.4 Factors Affecting the Rate of Degradation of Bio‐plastics and Biodegradable Plastics 10.5 Future Aspects and Challenges for Development of Bio‐based and Biodegradable Plastics 10.6 Conclusions Acknowledgement References

16 11 Current Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities for Plastic Recycling 11.1 Introduction: The Pollution Problem Involving Plastic 11.2 Sources, Types, and Transportation of Plastics in the Environment 11.3 An Introduction to Waste Management 11.4 Plastic Recycling Systems 11.5 Latest Industry Trends and a Future Perspective 11.6 Conclusions References

17 12 Microbial Degradation of Micro‐Plastics 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Plastic Categorization Based on Biodegradability 12.3 Microplastics Cycling into the Environment 12.4 Microorganisms and Interactions with Microplastics 12.5 Factors Affecting Biodegradation of Microplastics 12.6 Mechanisms of Microplastic Biodegradation 12.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References

18 13 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Plastics 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Plastics 13.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 13.4 Plastics Sustainability by LCA 13.5 Discussion and Conclusion References

19 14 Role of Education and Society in Dealing Plastic Pollution in the Future 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Consumption 14.3 Global Dimension of Plastic Pollution 14.4 Plastic Pollution in Natural Environments 14.5 Role of Education for Plastic Waste Management 14.6 Significance of Plastic Waste Education 14.7 Role of NGOs and General Public 14.8 Conclusion References

20 Index

21 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 1 Table 1.1 Summary of selected studies on MP contamination in natural freshw...

2 Chapter 2 Table 2.1 Concentrations and sizes of microplastics reported in samples fro...

3 Chapter 3 Table 3.1 The occurrence of MPs in marine organisms reported in some studie...

4 Chapter 6Table 6.1 Categories of plastics based on their size.Table 6.2 Regional loss of microplastics (%) to the environment as of 2018....

5 Chapter 7Table 7.1 Microplastic detection in seawater in the eastern and southern Me...Table 7.2 Microplastic detection in sediments in the eastern and southern M...Table 7.3 Microplastic detection in marine organisms in the eastern and sou...

6 Chapter 8Table 8.1 Marine environments targeted in this chapter.Table 8.2 Used solutions for density separation of microplastics from sedim...

7 Chapter 10Table 10.1 A comparison of features of bioplastics and conventional petrole...Table 10.2 Bioplastic sources and its use in various fields.

8 Chapter 12Table 12.1 Types of the plastic polymer along with constituent monomeric un...Table 12.2 List of various microorganisms bioremediating plastic polymers....

9 Chapter 13Table 13.1 A few ISO 14040 series documents for Life Cycle Assessment (Gnan...Table 13.2 The impact categories most used for life cycle assessment (Gnans...Table 13.3 Typical life cycle impact categories of plastics (CPCB 2018).

10 Chapter 14Table 14.1 Top 20 countries ranked by mass of mismanaged plastic waste in 2...Table 14.2 Current plastic waste problem in mega‐cities.

1 Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 (a) Micrograph of a microbead found in Lantau Island, Hong Kong... Figure 1.2 (a) Degradation and fragmentation of plastic under environmental ... Figure 1.3 SEM of typical fibers: (a) polyester‐cotton blend; (b) polyester;... Figure 1.4 Possible exposure pathways of MPs into freshwater environments. Figure 1.5 Techniques reported in the literature for identifying MPs in sedi...

2 Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Showing the pathways of plastic fluxes across the various hydrolo... Figure 2.2 Ecological effects of plastics (). Figure 2.3 Composition of microplastics found in freshwater samples

3 Chapter 3 Figure 3.1 Flow diagram of the fate of plastic entering the environment. Figure 3.2 Plastic web cycle: Plastic starting its journey from human and re... Figure 3.3 Associated chemical toxicants entering marine organisms have pote...

4 Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 Various pathways for the entry of microplastics in the ecosystem.... Figure 4.2 A Schematic representation of microplastic translocation from sea...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 The various stages and their details of soil analysis methodology...Figure 5.2 The entry route of MPs via food chains, and their effects.