Isotopic Constraints on Earth System Processes

10 Chapter 12Table 12.1 Influent solute composition and isotope ratios at pH 8.2 and 25°...Table 12.2 Model scenarios.

11 Chapter 13Table 13.1 All marine mammals (extant and fossil), prey organisms, standard...Table 13.2 Bowhead whale baleen measurements for three different individual...Table 13.3 Isotopic data for common prey items, including necessary taxonom...Table 13.4 Isotopic data for non‐traditional food sources of odontocete spe...Table 13.5 List of all sample codes for specimens examined in this study fr...Table 13.6 Summary of all measurements of NIST1486 made during bone analysi...Table 13.7 Summary of all measurements of CSW (Carolina Seawater) made duri...Table 13.8 Baleen measurements for the one‐year‐old bowhead whale (2012‐B5)...

1 Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Normalized concentration of CaO, MgO, K2O, FeO, and SiO2 measured... Figure 1.2 A schematic of the piston cylinder assembly used by Richter et al... Figure 1.3 The panels show the concentration of major oxides measured along ... Figure 1.4 Figure taken from Richter et al. (2003) showing the δ 44Ca of slab... Figure 1.5 The panel on the left shows a schematic of the piston cylinder as... Figure 1.6 The upper panel on the left shows the weight % MgO measured along... Figure 1.7 The black squares in this figure show the temperature derived fro... Figure 1.8 The panel on the left shows the steady state distribution of the ... Figure 1.9 Thermal fractionation of isotopes of the listed elements in molte... Figure 1.10 Diagram showing the experimental design used to diffused lithium... Figure 1.11 The panel on the left uses black circles to show the lithium con... Figure 1.12 Lithium concentration and isotopic fractionation normalized by t... Figure 1.13 Lithium concentration data normalized by the average value in th... Figure 1.14 Results of a diffusion calculation for the evolution of the lith... Figure 1.15 Chemical concentration (open circles) and isotopic fractionation... Figure 1.16 The panel on the left shows a false color image of a Type B CAI ... Figure 1.17 The unfilled circles and squares are the isotopic fractionation ... Figure 1.18 This figure compares the correlation of the silicon and magnesiu...

2 Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Alkali‐silica diagram showing the coordinates of the two starting... Figure 2.2 Piston‐cylinder sample assembly used for the diffusion couple exp... Figure 2.3 Major‐element diffusion profiles from two experiments lasting 2.5... Figure 2.4 Isotopic profiles from two experiments lasting 2.5 hours and 6 ho... Figure 2.5 The Zhang model and its parameters are based on the concept of el... Figure 2.6 Model behavior showing concentration, activity, and transient equ... Figure 2.7 The modified EBD model applied to the data. Top panels: SiO 2diff... Figure 2.8 β factors from this study (points with an asterisk) compared to l... Figure 2.9 The 2.5 hour run modeled using a linear dependence of CaO activit...

3 Chapter 3 Figure 3.1 Maps of Central America, Eastern Africa, and Europe showing locat... Figure 3.2 Regional variations in trace element ratios along the Central Ame... Figure 3.3 Calcium isotopic composition of Central American volcanic arc mag... Figure 3.4 Ba/Th‐ 87Sr/ 86Sr (a), 143Nd/ 144Nd‐ 87Sr/ 86Sr (b), and 206Pb/ 204Pb‐ 8...

4 Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 Physiographic map of southwest North America. Locations of < 40 M...Figure 4.2 Smoothed 2D histogram of Nd and Sr initial isotopic compositions ...Figure 4.3 N‐MORB normalized trace element abundances from Sliderock Mountai...Figure 4.4 Ta/Th and ε Nd(T) vs. wt% SiO 2for < 55 wt% SiO 2volcanic rocks a...Figure 4.5 Spatial distribution of ε Nd(T) values for < 40 Ma basaltic volcan...Figure 4.6 Initial ε Ndvs. wt% P 20 5/wt% K 20 for Cenozoic basalts as 2D smoot...Figure 4.7 Initial ε Ndvs. (Zn/Fe) *1000 for mafic volcanic rocks (wt% MgO ≥...Figure 4.8 Initial ε Hfvs ε Ndvalues for Cenozoic basalts and peridotite xen...Figure 4.9 (a) Measured 187Os/ 188Os vs. whole rock wt% Al 2O 3for peridotite ...Figure 4.10 176Hf/ 177Hf vs. 176Lu/ 177Hf for whole rock and clinopyroxenes fr...Figure 4.11 Measured ε Ndvalues vs. 147Sm/ 144Nd for spinel and garnet peridot...Figure 4.12 Relative probability histograms (left axis) and cumulative proba...Figure 4.13 ε Nd(T) vs. whole rock Ta/Th for <40 Ma basaltic rocks. The 2D hi...Figure 4.14 Initial 87Sr/ 86Sr vs. Ta/Th for basaltic rocks with wt% SiO 2≤ 5...Figure 4.15 Initial 208Pb/ 204Pb (a) and 207Pb/ 204Pb (b) vs. 206Pb/ 204Pb for ...Figure 4.16 208Pb/ 204Pb (a) and 207Pb/ 204Pb (b) vs. 206Pb/ 204Pb for high Ta/...Figure 4.17 Ta (ppm) vs. Th (ppm) (a) and (b) ε Nd(T) vs Ta (ppm) for asthen...Figure 4.18 Wt % P 2O 5/ wt% K 2O (P/K) vs. 87Sr/ 86Sr (T) for Late Cretaceous S...Figure 4.19 Spatial variations in Nd isotopic compositions of ≥ 20 Ma (a) an...Figure 4.20 Distribution of intermediate and low Ta/Th group volcanic rocks ...Figure 4.21 ε Nd(T) (a), 87Sr/ 86Sr (T) (b), and Ta/Th (c) vs. eruptive age f...Figure 4.22 Cartoons depicting physical settings leading to volcanism of var...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Generalized geologic map of Ecuador showing the major geologic an...Figure 5.2 Geologic map of the Chalupas caldera assembled from field observa...Figure 5.3 Stratigraphic column based on exposures in Naxiche Gorge showing ...Figure 5.4 SiO 2variation diagrams for the Chalupas lavas. The high‐AhO 3, hi...Figure 5.5 NMORB‐normalized trace element concentrations for representative ...Figure 5.6 Sr‐, Nd‐, and O‐isotope ratios of Chalupas whole rock samples plo...Figure 5.7 Sr‐, Nd‐, and O‐isotope ratios of metamorphic basement samples. A...Figure 5.8 Results of two‐stage finite difference‐AFC modeling of isotopic e...Figure 5.9 Comparison of measured concentrations of Rb, Th, Nb, and K versus...Figure 5.10 Nd isotopic data plotted versus latitude for Andean volcanic roc...Figure 5.11 Variation of melt density with depth compared to crustal density...Figure 5.12 Comparison of estimated magma supply rates for Chalupas, Cotopax...Figure 5.13 Groundmass (a), plagioclase (b), and biotite (c) 40Ar/ 39Ar incre...Figure 5.14 Major element trends in Chalupas lavas and tuffs.Figure 5.15 Schematic two‐stage AFC/FC model for the lavas and tuffs of the ...Figure 5.16 Effects of assimilation on the relationship between SiO 2concent...Figure 5.17 Model estimates of the magma supply (Q AFCof Fig. 5.15) needed t...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Cone locations based on maps from Fodor et al. (1997), Fodor (200...Figure 6.2 Primitive mantle‐normalized REE abundances in clinopyroxene from ...Figure 6.3 Comparison of 208Pb/ 207Pb variations in Mauna Kea xenoliths with ...Figure 6.4 Comparison of Sr‐Pb and Nd‐Pb isotope variations in Mauna Kea xen...Figure 6.5 Comparison of δ 18O values of clinopyroxene and olivine from the s...Figure 6.6 Comparison of Sr‐ and O‐isotope compositional variations in Mauna...Figure 6.7 Correlation between mineral Mg# and δ 18O values in Mauna Kea xeno...Figure 6.8 MgO‐CaO trends in Mauna Kea glasses and wholerocks suggest olivin...Figure 6.9 Distribution of forsterite content in olivine phenocrysts from sh...Figure 6.10 Comparison of observed major element correlations in Mauna Kea b...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Simplified volcano‐tectonic map of Mt. Etna volcanowith the l...Figure 7.2 Correlation between the ( 220Rn/ 222Rn) and CO 2efflux in the sampl...Figure 7.3 Location of sites for the measurement of soil CO 2efflux, soil ra...Figure 7.4 Correlations between ( 222Rn) “activity” and CO 2efflux in the sam...Figure 7.5 Correlations between ( 220Rn) “activity” and CO 2efflux in the sam...Figure 7.6 Correlation plot between the log values of ( 220Rn/ 222Rn) and the ...Figure 7.7 Schematic of closed system ingrowth model of ( 220Rn) and ( 222Rn) ...Figure 7.8 Temporal patterns of the average SGDI values calculated for each ...Figure 7.9 Temporal patterns of the average SGDI values calculated for each ...Figure 7.10 – Left plots: Temporal variation of interpolated SGDI values, be...Figure 7.11 Temporal variation of interpolated SGDI values, before and after...Figure 7.12 Simulations of the possible temporal patterns of SGDI values (ye...Figure 7.13 Dendrograms showing the results of cluster analysis on the SGDI ...Figure 7.14 Spectrograms of frequencies for the SGDI time series in each of ...Figure 7.15 Spectrograms of frequencies for the SGDI time series in each of ...Figure 7.16 Normal probability plots for the SGDI data of the four clusters ...Figure 7.17 Normal probability plots for the SGDI data of the three clusters...