Станислав Коростелев: Английский язык для юристов. Предпринимательское право

– actual malice – злой умысел, установленный по фактическим обстоятельствам дела

– comparative negligence – относительная небрежность совместная вина

– contributory negligence – небрежность (неосторожность) истца, вызвавшая несчастный случай; вина потерпевшего; небрежность, предполагающая возмещение доли ответственности

– damage cap – предел возмещения

– damages – возмещение вреда

– defamation – разглашение правдивых сведений позорящих другое лицо

– defective condition – юридически порочные условия

– false imprisonment – неправомерное лишение свободы

– infliction of emotional distress – причинение эмоционального расстройства

– injunction – судебный запрет

– interference with a contract – вмешательство в контракт

– invasion of privacy – нарушение личной жизни

– legal duty – правовая обязанность, договорная обязанность

– libel – клевета письменно или через печать

– misuse of legal procedure – злоупотребление судопроизводством

– negligence – небрежность

– nuisance – нарушение покоя, вред, источник вреда, «зловредность» (в частности, причинение собственнику недвижимости помех и неудобств в пользовании ею)

– proximate cause – непосредственная причина

– punitive damages – штрафные убытки, убытки, присуждаемые в порядке наказания

– doctrine respondeat superior – доктрина «пусть принципал отвечает»

– slander – устная клевета

– strict liability – строгая ответственность; объективная ответственность (независимо от наличия вины)

– survival statute – закон о признании основания иска действительным независимо от смерти стороны

– tort – деликт, гражданское правонарушение

– tortfeasor – причинитель вреда, делинквент; правонарушитель

A tort is a private wrong that injures another person's physical well-being, property, or reputation. A person who commits a tort is called a tortfeasor. The other party is alternately referred to as the injured party, the innocent party, or the victim. If a lawsuit has been filed, the injured party is called the plaintiff and the tortfeasor is called the defendant.

The primary purpose of tort law is to compensate the innocent party by making up for any loss suffered by that victim. Another objective is to protect potential victims by deterring future tortious behavior. Criminal law involves a public wrong, that is, a wrong that affects the entire society. When a crime is committed, government authorities begin legal actions designed to remove the offender from society. It is possible, however, for a single act to be both a tort and a crime.

Businesspeople must be especially aware of tort law because of the doctrine of respondeat superior (let the master respond). That doctrine may impose legal liability on employers and make them pay for the torts committed by their employees within the scope of the employer's business.

No legal liability can be imposed against an individual unless two elements are present: the first element is duty, which is an obligation placed on individuals because of the law; the second element is a violation of that duty. A duty can be violated intentionally, through negligence, or under the theory of strict liability.

Legal duties arise corresponding to each right within each member of our society.

Intentional violations of duty include a variety of intentional torts, all of which have their own individual elements. The principal intentional torts are assault, battery, false imprisonment, defamation, invasion of privacy, misuse of legal procedure, infliction of emotional distress, nuisance, and interference with a contract.

People and property are sometimes injured even when no one intends that the injury occur. Such an occurrence is usually labeled «an accident.» Justice demands that the injured party be compensated. That part of tort law that is concerned with the compensation of accident victims is called negligence.

Under what circumstances can the actions of an alleged tortfeasor be labeled negligent so that the tortfeasor will be held liable? Four elements must be present to establish negligence: (1) legal duty, (2) breach of duty through a failure to meet the appropriate standard of care, (3) proximate cause, and (4) actual injury.

A breach of duty owed to the victim occurs if the tortfeasor has not met the appropriate standard of care under the circumstances. To determine if the alleged tortfeasor has met the standard of care, the court uses the reasonable person test. This test compares the actions of the tortfeasor with those of a reasonable person in a similar situation. The reasonable person test is objective.

Determining this test may require the use of expert witnesses to testify as to the reasonable professional's conduct under the circumstances.

In order for the tortfeasor to be held liable, the unreasonable conduct must be the proximate cause of the victim's injuries. Proximate cause (sometimes referred to as legal cause) is the connection between the unreasonable conduct and the resulting harm.

The injured party in a lawsuit for negligence must show that actual harm was suffered. In most cases, the harm suffered is a physical injury or in a form of property damage, and is, therefore, visible. Harm suffered due to fright or humiliation is difficult to demonstrate.

Several defenses can be used by the defendant in a negligence case. These defenses include contributory negligence, comparative negligence, and assumption of the risk.

The defense of contributory negligence involves the failure of the injured party to be careful enough to ensure personal safety. Contributory negligence completely prevents recovery by the injured party. The injured party's defense to a charge of contributory negligence is called last clear chance. Under this doctrine, a tortfeasor may be held liable if the injured party can show that the tortfeasor had the last chance to avoid injury.

The doctrine of comparative negligence requires courts to weigh the relative degree of wrongdoing in awarding damages, and to assign damages according to the degree of fault of each party.

Another defense to negligence is assumption of the risk, which involves the voluntary exposure of the victim to a known risk.

Under the doctrine of strict liability or absolute liability, the court will hold a tortfeasor liable for injuries to a victim even though the tortfeasor did not intend the harm and was not, in any way, negligent. Strict liability is generally applied when the harm results from an ultrahazardous or very dangerous activity.