Hubert Bancroft - The Native Races [of the Pacific states], Volume 1, Wild Tribes

'The white-pine bark is a very good substitute for birch, but has the disadvantage of being more brittle in cold weather.' Suckley , in Pac. R. R. Rept. , vol. i., p. 296. Yakima boats are 'simply logs hollowed out and sloped up at the ends, without form or finish.' Gibbs , in Id. , p. 408. The Flatheads 'have no canoes, but in ferrying streams use their lodge skins, which are drawn up into an oval form by cords, and stretched on a few twigs. These they tow with horses, riding sometimes three abreast.' Stevens , in Id. , p. 415. In the Kootenai canoe 'the upper part is covered, except a space in the middle.' The length is twenty-two feet, the bottom being a dead level from end to end. Ross' Fur Hunters , vol. ii., pp. 169-70. 'The length of the bottom of the one I measured was twelve feet, the width between the gunwales only seven and one half feet.' 'When an Indian paddles it, he sits at the extreme end, and thus sinks the conical point, which serves to steady the canoe like a fish's tail.' Lord's Nat. , vol. ii., pp. 178-9, 255-7. On the Arrow Lakes 'their form is also peculiar and very beautiful. These canoes run the rapids with more safety than those of any other shape.' Kane's Wand. , p. 328. See De Smet , Voy. , pp. 35, 187; Irving's Astoria , p. 319; Lewis and Clarke's Trav. , p. 375; Hector , in Palliser's Explor. , p. 27; Stevens , in Ind. Aff. Rept. , 1854, pp. 208, 214, 223, 238.

'The tradition is that horses were obtained from the southward,' not many generations back. Tolmie , in Lord's Nat. , vol. ii., pp. 247, 177-8. Individuals of the Walla Wallas have over one thousand horses. Warre and Vavasour , in Martin's Hud. Bay , p. 83. Kootenais rich in horses and cattle. Palliser's Explor. , pp. 44, 73. Kliketat and Yakima horses sometimes fine, but injured by early usage; deteriorated from a good stock; vicious and lazy. Gibbs , in Pac. R. R. Rept. , vol. i., p. 405. 'La richesse principale des sauvages de l'ouest consiste en chevaux.' De Smet , Voy. , pp. 47, 56. At an assemblage of Walla Wallas, Shahaptains and Kyoots, 'the plains were literally covered with horses, of which there could not have been less than four thousand in sight of the camp.' Ross' Adven. , p. 127. The Kootanies about Arrow Lake, or Sinatcheggs have no horses, as the country is not suitable for them. Id. , Fur Hunters , vol. ii., pp. 171-2. Of the Spokanes the 'chief riches are their horses, which they generally obtain in barter from the Nez Percés.' Cox's Adven. , vol. i., p. 200. A Skyuse is poor who has but fifteen or twenty horses. The horses are a fine race, 'as large and of better form and more activity than most of the horses of the States.' Farnham's Trav. , p. 82. The Flatheads 'are the most northern of the equestrian tribes.' Nicolay's Ogn. Ter. , p. 153. Many Nez Percés 'have from five to fifteen hundred head of horses.' Palmer's Jour. , pp. 128-9. Indians of the Spokane and Flathead tribes 'own from one thousand to four thousand head of horses and cattle.' Stevens' Address , p. 12. The Nez Percé horses 'are principally of the pony breed; but remarkably stout and long-winded.' Irving's Bonneville's Adven. , p. 301; Hastings' Em. Guide , p. 59; Hines' Voy. , p. 344; Gass' Jour. , p. 295; Parker's Explor. Tour , p. 230.

The Chilluckittequaw intercourse seems to be an intermediate trade with the nations near the mouth of the Columbia. The Chopunnish trade for, as well as hunt, buffalo-robes east of the mountains. Course of trade in the Sahaptin county: The plain Indians during their stay on the river from May to September, before they begin fishing, go down to the falls with skins, mats, silk-grass, rushes and chapelell bread. Here they meet the mountain tribes from the Kooskooskie (Clearwater) and Lewis rivers, who bring bear-grass, horses, quamash and a few skins obtained by hunting or by barter from the Tushepaws. At the falls are the Chilluckittequaws, Eneeshurs, Echeloots and Skilloots, the latter being intermediate traders between the upper and lower tribes. These tribes have pounded fish for sale; and the Chinooks bring wappato, sea-fish, berries, and trinkets obtained from the whites. Then the trade begins; the Chopunnish and mountain tribes buy wappato, pounded fish and beads; and the plain Indians buy wappato, horses, beads, etc. Lewis and Clarke's Trav. , pp. 341, 382, 444-5. Horse-fairs in which the natives display the qualities of their steeds with a view to sell. Lord's Nat. , vol. ii., pp. 86-7. The Oakinacks make trips to the Pacific to trade wild hemp for hiaqua shells and trinkets. Ross' Adven. , pp. 291, 323. Trade conducted in silence between a Flathead and Crow. De Smet , Voy. , p. 56. Kliketats and Yakimas 'have become to the neighboring tribes what the Yankees were to the once Western States, the traveling retailers of notions.' Gibbs , in Pac. R. R. Rept. , vol. i., pp. 403, 406. Cayuses, Walla Wallas, and Nez Percés meet in Grande Ronde Valley to trade with the Snakes. Thornton's Ogn. and Cal. , vol. i., p. 270; Hale's Ethnog. , in U. S. Ex. Ex. , vol. vi., p. 208; Cox's Adven. , vol. ii., pp. 88-9, 156; Palmer's Jour. , pp. 46, 54; Dunniway's Capt. Gray's Comp. , p. 160; Coke's Rocky Mts. , p. 294; Mayne's B. C. , p. 299; Gass' Jour. , p. 205.

In calculating time the Okanagans use their fingers, each finger standing for ten; some will reckon to a thousand with tolerable accuracy, but most can scarcely count to twenty. Ross' Adven. , p. 324. The Flatheads 'font néanmoins avec précision, sur des écorces d'arbres ou sur des peaux le plan, des pays qu'ils ont parcourus, marquant les distances par journées, demi-journées ou quarts de journées.' De Smet , Voy. , p. 205. Count years by snows, months by moons, and days by sleeps. Have names for each number up to ten; then add ten to each; and then add a word to multiply by ten. Parker's Explor. Tour , p. 242. Names of the months in the Pisquouse and Salish languages beginning with January; – 'cold, a certain herb, snow-gone, bitter-root, going to root-ground, camass-root, hot, gathering berries, exhausted salmon, dry, house-building, snow.' Hale's Ethnog. , in U. S. Ex. Ex. , vol. vi., p. 211. 'Menses computant lunis, ex spkani, sol vel luna et dies per ferias. Hebdomadam unicam per splcháskat, septem dies , plures vero hebdomadas per s'chaxèus, id est, vexillum quod a duce maximo qualibet die dominica suspendebatur. Dies antem in novem dividitur partes.' Mengarini , Grammatica Linguae Selicae , p. 120; Sproat's Scenes , p. 270; Lewis and Clarke's Trav. , p. 374.

The twelve Oakinack tribes 'form, as it were, so many states belonging to the same union, and are governed by petty chiefs.' The chieftainship descends from father to son; and though merely nominal in authority, the chief is rarely disobeyed. Property pays for all crimes. Ross' Adven. , pp. 289-94, 322-3, 327. The Chualpays are governed by the 'chief of the earth' and 'chief of the waters,' the latter having exclusive authority in the fishing-season. Kane's Wand. , pp. 309-13. The Nez Percés offered a Flathead the position of head chief, through admiration of his qualities. De Smet , Voy. , pp. 50, 171. Among the Kalispels the chief appoints his successor, or if he fails to do so, one is elected. De Smet , Western Miss. , p. 297. The Flathead war chief carries a long whip, decorated with scalps and feathers to enforce strict discipline. The principal chief is hereditary. Cox's Adven. , vol. i., pp. 241-2, vol. ii., p. 88. The 'camp chief' of the Flatheads as well as the war chief was chosen for his merits. Ind. Life , pp. 28-9. Among the Nez Percés and Wascos 'the form of government is patriarchal. They acknowledge the hereditary principle – blood generally decides who shall be the chief.' Alvord , in Schoolcraft's Arch. , vol. v., pp. 652-4. No regularly recognized chief among the Spokanes, but an intelligent and rich man often controls the tribe by his influence. Wilkes' Nar. , in U. S. Ex. Ex. , vol. iv., pp. 475-6. 'The Salish can hardly be said to have any regular form of government.' Hale's Ethnog. , in U. S. Ex. Ex. , vol. vi., pp. 207-8. Every winter the Cayuses go down to the Dalles to hold a council over the Chinooks 'to ascertain their misdemeanors and punish them therefor by whipping'! Farnham's Trav. , p. 81-2. Among the Salish 'criminals are sometimes punished by banishment from their tribe.' 'Fraternal union and the obedience to the chiefs are truly admirable.' Domenech's Deserts , vol. ii., pp. 343-4; Hines' Voy. , p. 157; Stanley's Portraits , p. 63; Dunn's Oregon , pp. 311-12; White's Oregon , p. 189; Pickering's Races , in U. S. Ex. Ex. , vol. ix., p. 108; Joset , in Nouvelles Annales des Voy. , tom. cxxiii., 1849, pp. 334-40.