A Guide to the Scientific Career

10 Section VII: Publication and Resources 36 An Introduction to Academic Publishing 36.1 Introduction 36.2 Manuscript Submission 36.3 Peer‐Review Process 36.4 After the Manuscript is Accepted for Publication 36.5 Final Publication 37 Various Types of Scientific Articles 37.1 Introduction 37.2 Primary or Original‐Research Articles 37.3 Secondary or Review Articles 37.4 Special Articles 37.5 Tertiary Literature 37.6 Gray Literature 37.7 Conclusions References 38 Authorship 38.1 Era of Collaborative Research 38.2 Giving Credit to Collaborators 38.3 Assigning Authorship 38.4 Corresponding Author 38.5 Ethical Responsibility 38.6 Conclusions Acknowledgments Further Reading 39 Recognition, Reward, and Responsibility: Why the Authorship of Scientific Papers Matters 39.1 Why Does the Authorship of Scientific Papers Matter? 39.2 What Is Authorship? 39.3 What Guidelines on Authorship Are Available? 39.4 Solutions to Authorship Problems 39.5 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 40 Biomedical Journals: Scientific Quality, Reputation, and Impact Factor 40.1 Introduction 40.2 The Journal Impact Factor 40.3 Alternatives to the Journal Impact Factor 40.4 Caveats to Interpreting the Journal Impact Factor 40.5 Conclusions References 41 Scholarly Open‐Access Publishing 41.1 Introduction 41.2 Monitoring Scholarly Open‐Access Publishing 41.3 Predatory Publishers 41.4 Discovering Open‐Access Publications 41.5 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Publishing in Open‐Access Journals 41.6 The Future of Open‐Access Publishing 41.7 Why Open‐Access Publications Are Gaining in Appreciation 41.8 How to Recognize Predatory Journals References 42 How to Find a Suitable Journal for Your Manuscript 42.1 Introduction 42.2 Initially Deciding on Which Journal to Publish 42.3 Factors to Consider in Selecting a Suitable Journal 42.4 Recommended Approach 42.5 Contacting the Editorial Office 42.6 Acceptable Format for Manuscripts 42.7 Handling a Negative Editorial Decision 42.8 The Possible Outcomes of Submitting to an Unsuitable Journal References 43 Scientific Peer Review 43.1 Introduction 43.2 History of Peer Review 43.3 Process 43.4 Criticism References 44 How to Reply to Editors and Reviewers 44.1 You Receive the Decision Letter… 44.2 Context 44.3 Types of Decision Letters and How to Answer 44.4 After You Resubmitted 44.5 Conclusion References 45 Causes of Manuscript Rejection and How to Handle a Rejected Manuscript 45.1 Introduction 45.2 Dealing with the Common Causes of Rejection 45.3 Summary 45.4 Conclusions References 46 Resources and Databases 46.1 Reference Search Using Textbooks 46.2 Reference Search Using Websites 46.3 Other Sources Further Reading 47 Research: A Construct Defined by Context 47.1 Introduction 47.2 Research Literacy: A Mindset and Skillset for Self‐Critical Systematic Inquiry 47.3 Defining and Planning the Research Context: The Research Proposal 47.4 Evaluating Research Resources: Self‐Reflective Research Practice 47.5 Meaning and Context: A Self‐Critical Perspective References 48 Critical Evaluation of the Clinical Literature 48.1 Introduction 48.2 Critical Appraisal of a Scientific Article 48.3 Is the Study Valid? 48.4 What Are the Results? Assessing and Analyzing Results of a Study 48.5 Are the Results Useful? From Research to Clinical Practice 48.6 The Research World References

11 Section VIII: Technical Writing 49 Writing for Your Audience 49.1 Introduction 49.2 Who Is Your Audience? 49.3 Where Is Your Audience? 49.4 How Does Your Audience Inform Your Writing Style? 50 Principles of Writing a Good Scholarly Paper 50.1 What Is a Good Paper? 50.2 Order of Writing 50.3 Draft, Draft, and Redraft 50.4 Conclusions Further Reading 51 Tips for Scientific Writing 51.1 Professional Publications 51.2 Manuscripts Require Repeated Revision Before They Are Submitted for Publication 51.3 Establish the Right Mindset before You Write 51.4 Remember Who Your Readers Are 51.5 How to Convey Your Findings 51.6 Keeping “Discussion” Sections under Control 52 Perspectives of a Medical Editor 52.1 Everyone Needs an Editor 52.2 When Planning Your Foray into Academic Writing, Keep It Simple 52.3 Learn to Use a Good Reference Software Program 52.4 Become Your Own Line Editor 52.5 Minimize Acronyms 52.6 Beware of Predatory Journals 52.7 Check Your Numbers – Then Check Them Again 52.8 Fully Involve Your Co‐authors 52.9 Observe the Copyright Laws 52.10 Once Your Accepted Article Is in Production, Check Your Proof Carefully References 53 The Art of Organizing Your Research Content 53.1 The Art of Organizing Your Research Content 53.2 The Outline 53.3 Organization by Section 53.4 How to Approach Content Organization References 54 Economy of Writing: How to Write Technical Content 54.1 Planning 54.2 The Process 54.3 General Writing Issues 54.4 Epilogue 55 Writing an Effective Title and Abstract 55.1 An Effective Title 55.2 Preparation of the Abstract 55.3 Features of a Quality Abstract 55.4 Editing of the Abstract Further Reading 56 Writing the Results Section 56.1 Introduction 56.2 Content 56.3 Language, Style, and Organization 56.4 Accuracy of Findings and Presentation of Data 56.5 Use of Tables and Illustrative Materials References 57 Writing the Discussion Section for Original Research Articles 57.1 Introduction 57.2 Purpose of a Discussion Section 57.3 What and How to Discuss References 58 Reporting a Clinical Trial 58.1 Evidence‐Based Medicine 58.2 Quality of Clinical Trials 58.3 Writing Your Manuscript References 59 Publishing a Case Report 59.1 Introduction 59.2 Clinicians Are Rich Sources for Unique Medical and Surgical Cases 59.3 The Importance of Publishing Case Reports 59.4 When Should a Case Report Be Written? 59.5 If You Publish Your Case Report, Who Will Be Interested in Reading It? 59.6 Do You Have Sufficient Material for a Case Report? 59.7 Choosing the Right Journal 59.8 Ethical Considerations: Patient and Institution 59.9 From Case Studies to Large‐Scale Clinical Studies References 60 Writing Editorials 60.1 What Is an Editorial? 60.2 Who Can Write an Editorial? 60.3 Contents of a Typical Editorial 60.4 Key Point for Writing Editorials References 61 Writing a Letter to the Editor 61.1 What Is a Letter to the Editor? 61.2 How to Approach Writing a Letter to the Editor 61.3 What Happens When Your Letter Has Been Accepted? Further Reading 62 Writing a Book Review 62.1 Introduction 62.2 Strategy for Crafting Book Reviews 62.3 Negative and Positive Book Reviews 62.4 Editorial Guidance 62.5 Checklist for Writing a Book Review References 63 Use of Illustrations and Figures to Enhance Scientific Presentations and Publications 63.1 Introduction 63.2 What Is Medical Illustration? 63.3 Types of Illustrations 63.4 Illustrations and Research Design 63.5 Sourcing Illustrations 63.6 Collaborations 63.7 Conclusion Further Reading 64 How to Prepare Supplemental Materials for Scientific Publications 64.1 Introduction 64.2 Definition of Supplemental Materials 64.3 How to Decide What Is Supplementary 64.4 Types of Supplemental Materials and How to Prepare Them 64.5 Online Storage and Access 64.6 Conclusions References 65 Reference‐Management Software 65.1 Introduction 65.2 Situational Example 65.3 What Is on the Market? 65.4 What to Expect from an RMS 65.5 Working in Collaboration and Sharing 65.6 In‐Computer versus Cloud 65.7 All Is Well? What Does the Future Hold? References Further Reading

12 Section IX: Biostatistics 66 Basic Statistical Analysis for Original Studies 66.1 Introduction 66.2 Measures of Central Tendencies 66.3 Types of Data 66.4 Distribution of Data 66.5 Transformation (Normalization) of Data 66.6 Measures of Variability 66.7 P‐Value and its Importance 66.8 Outliers 66.9 Various Statistical Tests and their Uses 66.10 Nonparametric Tests 66.11 Statistical Power 66.12 Determination of Sample Size 66.13 Establishing a Statistical Relationship 66.14 Interpretation of Interactions 66.15 Determination of Statistical Causality 66.16 Adjustment of Covariates in Clinical Trials 66.17 Statistical Software Packages Acknowledgments References Further Reading 67 An Overview of Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis 67.1 Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses 67.2 Structure of a Meta‐Analysis 67.3 Role of Meta‐Analysis in Evidence‐Based Medicine 67.4 Critical Appraisal Sheet for Systematic Reviews References 68 An Introduction to Meta‐Analysis 68.1 Introduction 68.2 Step One: Frame a Study Question 68.3 Step Two: Search the Literature and Conduct Initial Screening 68.4 Step Three: Conduct Risk of Bias Appraisal of Full Texts 68.5 Step Four: Abstract Data from Individual Studies 68.6 Step Five: Assess Whether the Studies Are Homogeneous 68.7 Step Six: Conduct Fixed Effects or Random Effects Meta‐analysis and Perform Sensitivity Analyses 68.8 Conclusion References 69 Missing Values: How to Treat Them Appropriately 69.1 Introduction 69.2 Types of Missingness 69.3 Linear Regression Models 69.4 Modern Approaches to the Problem of Missing Data References