Carl Clausewitz - The Strategy of Warfare – Boxed Set

Thus it is that the six forms of policy are applied together.

As to their special application:--

When a powerless king finds himself attacked by a powerful king, leading a Circle of States, he should submissively sue for peace on the condition of offering treasure, army, himself or his territory.

Agreement made on the condition that with a fixed number of troops or with the flower of his army, a king should present himself (when called for), is peace termed átmámisha, ‘offering himself as flesh.’

Agreement made on the condition that the commander of the army together with the heir-apparent should present himself (when called for), is peace styled purushántarasandhi, ‘peace with hostages other than the king himself’; and it is conducive to self-preservation, as it does not require the personal attendance of the king.

Agreement made on the condition that the king himself or some one else should march with the army to some place, as required, is peace termed adrishtapurusha, ‘peace with no specified person to serve’; and it is conducive to the safety of the king and the chiefs of his army.

In the first two forms of the peace, a woman of rank should be given as an hostage, and in the last, a secret attempt should be made to capture the enemy; these are the forms of peace concluded on the condition of supplying his army.

When, by offering wealth, the rest of the elements of sovereignty are set free, that peace is termed parikraya, ‘price.’

Similarly, when peace is concluded by offering money capable of being taken on a man's shoulders, it is termed upagraha, ‘subsidy’; and it is of various forms; Owing to distance and owing to its having been kept long, the amount of the tribute promised may sometimes fall in arrears.

Yet as such a burden can tolerably be paid in future, this peace is better than the one with a woman given as an hostage. When the parties making an agreement of peace are amicably united, it is termed suvarnasandhi, ‘golden peace.’

Quite reverse from the former is the peace called kapála, ‘half of a pot,’ which is concluded on the condition of paying immense quantity of money.

In the first two, one should send the supply of raw materials, elephants, horses and troops; in the third, money; and in the fourth, one should evade the payment under the plea of loss of results from works; these are the forms of peace concluded on the payment of money.

When by ceding a part of the territory, the rest of the kingdom with its subjects are kept safe, it is termed ádishta, ‘ceded,’ and is of advantage to one who is desirous of destroying thieves and other wicked persons (infesting the ceded part).

When with the exception of the capital, the whole of the territory, impoverished by exploitation of its resources is ceded, it is termed uchchhinnasandhi, ‘peace cut off from profit,’ and is of advantage to one who desires to involve the enemy in troubles.

When by the stipulation of paying the produce of the land, the kingdom is set free, it is termed avakraya, ‘rent.’ That which is concluded by the promise of paying more than the land yields is paribhúshana, ‘ornament.’

One should prefer the first; but the last two based upon the payment of the produce should be made only when one is obliged to submit to power. These are the forms of peace made by ceding territory.

These three kinds of peace are to be concluded by an inferior king in submission to the power of a superior king owing to the peculiar condition of his own works, circumstances and time.

[Thus ends Chapter III, “The Character of Equal, Inferior, and Superior Kings; and Forms of Agreement made by an Inferior King” in Book VII, “The end of the Six-fold Policy” of the Arthasástra of Kautilya. End of the hundred and first chapter from the beginning.]

Table of Contents

NEUTRALITY or marching after proclaiming war or peace has been explained.

Sthána (keeping quiet), ásana (withdrawal from hostility), and upekshana (negligence) are synonymous with the word ‘ásana,’ ‘neutrality.’ As to the difference between three aspects of neutrality:---Keeping quiet, maintaining a particular kind of policy is sthána; withdrawal from hostile actions for the sake of one’s own interests is ásana; and taking no steps (against an enemy) is upekshana.

When two kings, who, though bent on making conquests, are desirous of peace, are unable to proceed, one against the other, they may keep quiet after proclaiming war or after making peace.

When a king finds it possible to put down by means of his own army, or with the help of a friend, or of wild tribes, another king of equal or superior power, then having set up proper defences against both internal and external enemies, he may keep quiet after proclaiming war.

When a king is convinced that his own subjects are brave, united, prosperous, and able not only to carry on their own works without interference, but also to harass his enemy's works, then he may keep quiet after proclaiming war.

When a king finds that as his enemy's subjects are ill-treated, impoverished and greedy and are ever being oppressed by the inroads of the army, thieves, and wild tribes, they can be made through intrigue to join his side; or that his own agriculture and commerce are flourishing while those of his enemy are waning; or that as the subjects of his enemy are suffering from famine, they will immigrate into his own territory; or that, though his own returns of agriculture and commerce are falling and those of his enemy increasing, his own subjects will never desert him in favour of his enemy; or that by proclaiming war, he can carry off, by force, the grains, cattle and gold of his enemy; or that he can prevent the import of his enemy's merchandise, which was destructive of his own commerce; or that valuable merchandise would come to his own territory, leaving that of his enemy; or that war being proclaimed, his enemy would be unable to put down traitors, enemies, and wild tribes and other rebels, and would be involved in war with them; or that his own friend would in a very short time accumulate wealth without much loss and would not fail to follow him in his march, since no friend would neglect the opportunity of acquiring a fertile land and a prosperous friend like himself,--then in view of inflicting injuries on his enemy and of exhibiting his own power, he may keep quiet after proclaiming war.

But my teacher says that turning against such a king, his enemy may swallow him.

‘Not so,’ says Kautilya, ‘impoverishment of the enemy who is free from troubles is all that is aimed at (when a king keeps quiet after proclaiming war). As soon as such a king acquires sufficient strength, he will undertake to destroy the enemy. To such a king, the enemy’s enemy will send help to secure his own personal safety.’ Hence, whoever is provided with necessary strength may keep quiet after proclaiming war.

When the policy of keeping quiet after proclaiming war is found productive of unfavourable results, then one shall keep quiet after making peace.

Whoever has grown in strength in consequence of keeping quiet after proclaiming war should proceed to attack his enemy.

When a king finds that his enemy has fallen into troubles; that the troubles of his enemy’s subjects can by no means be remedied; that as his enemy’s subjects are oppressed, ill-treated, disaffected, impoverished, become effiminate and disunited among themselves, they can be prevailed upon to desert their master; that his enemy’s country has fallen a victim to the inroads of such calamities, as fire, floods, pestilence epidemics (maraka), and famine and is therefore losing the flower of its youth and its defensive power,--then he should march after proclaiming war.