Andrew Radford - Linguistics An Introduction [Second Edition]

determiner such as it has the idiosyncratic property that it doesn’t allow a complement of any kind. So, what’s wrong with (329b) is that the lexical entry for the word it specifies that it can only be used pronominally (i.e. without a noun or noun phrase complement), and what’s wrong with (329d) is that the lexical entry for the word the specifies that it can only be used prenominally (and so must be followed by a noun or noun phrase complement).

The assumption that pronouns are determiners leads us towards the goal of

attaining a unitary characterisation of the syntax of nominal and pronominal expressions as projections of a head determiner constituent: determinate nominals are DPs headed by an overt determiner; indeterminate nominals are DPs headed by a null determiner; pronouns are determiners used without a complement (and, by extension, the null pronoun PRO is also a null determiner used without a

complement). We can then conclude that all nominal and pronominal expressions are projections of an (overt or covert) D constituent, and so we arrive at a uniform characterisation of nominals as D-projections (in much the same way as we

earlier analysed all clauses as C-projections).

The general approach which we have adopted here should now be clear. We

assume that our theory of grammar (UG) provides us with a ‘template’ for the structure of particular types of expression. So, clauses are universally

C-projections, and noun and pronoun expressions are universally D-projections.

Clauses which appear to lack a C constituent have a covert C; nominals which appear to lack a D constituent have a covert D. As will become clearer as our exposition unfolds, empty categories play a central role in the theory of syntax which we are outlining here (exercises 1 and 2).

Exercises

1.

Below are a number of tree diagrams representing a variety of different

types of English sentence structure. For each of the numbered posi-

tions designated by a question mark (?) in each structure, say what

kind of item (overt or covert) can occupy the position, and what

determines the choice of item occupying each position.

288

senten ces

(a)

CP

C

TP

ϕ

D

T'

?1

T

VP

has

V

CP

?2

C

TP

ϕ

D

T'

PRO

T

V

to

?3

(b) CP

C

TP

ϕ

D

T'

he

T VP

? 1

V CP

intending

C TP

? 2

D T'

you

T V

to ?

3

(c)

CP

C

TP

ϕ

D

T'

?1

T

VP

am

V

CP

?2

C

TP

if

D

T'

he

T

V

?3

resign

Empty categories

289

(d)

CP

C

TP

ϕ

DP

T'

D

N

T

VP

? 1

students

might

V

DP

? 2

D

N

? 3

exam

(e)

CP

C

TP

ϕ

D

T'

?1

T

VP

?2

V

DP

become

D

NP

the

N

PP

?3

P

DP

of

D

N

the

party

Model answer for (1a) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Since a finite T constituent like the third person singular present tense

T-auxiliary has agrees with – and assigns nominative case to – its

subject/specifier, position 1 must be occupied by a third person sin-

gular nominative D pronoun like he/she/it. Since the perfect auxiliary

has requires a VP complement headed by a verb in the perfect

participle form, position 2 must be filled by a perfect participle form

of a verb: and since the verb in question has a control infinitive

complement with a PRO subject, the verb occupying position 2 must

be a control verb (i.e. one which allows an infinitive complement with

a PRO subject); the verb form promised would satisfy both criteria (by

virtue of being the perfect participle form of the control verb

PROMISE. Since infinitival to requires a complement with a verb in

the infinitive form, position 3 much be occupied by a verb in the

infinitive form – and, moreover, by a verb which can be used without

any complement of its own. Such a verb form would be co-operate, for

290

senten ces

example. So, one kind of sentence which would have the structure (1a)

is He has promised to co-operate.

2.

Analyse the syntax of the following sentences, drawing a separate tree

diagram to represent the structure of each sentence, and discussing the

rationale for any empty categories which you posit:

(a) He is hoping to win the race

(b) She was intending to excuse herself

(c) I would prefer you to keep quiet

(d) They have realised they have an infection

(e) I doubt if she understands the situation

(f) Students feel teachers underestimate them

(g) The president made a promise to increase pensions

(h) Sensible people know power corrupts weak politicians

Hints -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Remember the core assumptions made in the section, namely that

(i) all clauses are CP+TP+VP structures containing an overt or covert

C constituent, an overt or covert T constituent and an overt or covert

subject (in spec-TP), and (ii) that all noun expressions are DPs con-

taining an overt or covert D constituent, and personal pronouns like

I/you/he etc. are pronominal D constituents (or D-pronouns, if you

prefer). In relation to (2d), consider why they have can contract to they’ve in the first clause, but not in the second. In relation to (2h), consider the possibility (suggested by Memo Cinque, but not discussed in the main text) that an adjective which modifies a following

noun serves as the specifier of a null functional head F which takes the

noun as its complement, so that an expression like a red car has a

structure along the lines of (i) below:

(i) DP

D

FP

a

A

F'

r e d

F N

ϕ

c a r

One reason for assuming that an adjectival expression modifying

a following noun is the specifier rather than the head of the FP

containing it is the fact that the adjectival expression can be a phrase

(as in ‘an extremely fast car’ or ‘a better than average car’: the

significance of this is that a phrase can occupy a specifier but not

a head position.

Empty categories

291

Model answer for (2a) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The determiner the merges with the noun race to form the DP the race.

This is merged with the verb win to form the VP win the race. This VP is

in turn merged with the infinitival T constituent to, forming the T0 to win

the race. Given the assumption made in the main text that seemingly

subjectless clauses have a null pronoun subject (= PRO), this T0 is

merged with a PRO subject to form the TP PRO to win the race.

Given the further assumption that all clauses are CPs and that clauses

not introduced by an overt complementiser are introduced by a covert

one, the resulting TP will be merged with a covert complementiser φ to

form the CP φ PRO to win the race. This CP is then merged with the

verb hoping to form the VP hoping φ PRO to win the race. The resulting

VP is in turn merged with the present tense T constituent is to form the