Robert Service - Spies and Commissars

As yet he did not approve of the Bolsheviks ruling by themselves, as he explained on 15 November: ‘What preoccupies me is the urgent need for a Menshevik–Bolshevik concentration in power in the interests of the Allies, Russia and the Revolution: I repeat this daily to Trotsky and to all the Bolsheviks I’ve had contact with.’ Sadoul gave the benefit of the doubt to Bolsheviks and blamed the Mensheviks for rejecting their overtures. 13

Trotsky and Lenin were seen to have an equal influence on events. But Lenin concentrated on his work in Sovnarkom and the Central Committee and did not speak to foreign correspondents. Until his beard grew back, he did not look like the Lenin known to us from so many later posters; and few people outside the centre of Petrograd knew what he looked like because Russian newspapers carried no photographs of him. 14To party comrades, though, he was immediately familiar. He had founded the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party in 1903. Although he had sometimes co-operated with the Menshevik faction, he did this only for tactical reasons. He wrote on every big question of Marxist theory: industrial capitalism, land, imperialism and epistemology. His cofactionalists followed him into extremism, and there were times when they themselves objected to his insistence on temporary compromises. Whenever he was thwarted he formed his own sub-faction. He was the most notorious schismatic in the European socialist movement before the Great War. At the beginning of 1917 his band of close supporters was tiny. Russia’s political and economic disintegration as well as its military defeat gave him an opening that was not his own handiwork. He now intended to make the most of the situation.

Lenin was shortish, pedantic and impatient. With his thumbs tucked into his waistcoat, he seemed at times like an angry Sunday preacher. He gave the impression that there was only one answer — his answer — to any complicated question. He was a gambler who trusted his intuitions. He lived for the cause. He was a stickler for party discipline when his ideas were official policy, but he broke all the rules as soon as he was in a minority. Power for himself and the Bolsheviks was important to him but still dearer to his mind was the achievement of a revolutionary dictatorship to cast down capitalism and imperialism worldwide. He and Trotsky formed a bond of trust in the early weeks of Soviet rule.

Trotsky organized the People’s Commissariat of Foreign Affairs from a distance and seldom entered its premises. The priority for him and Lenin was to secure authority in Petrograd. Trotsky liked the anecdote told about him that he intended simply to publish the secret wartime treaties of the Allies and then ‘shut up shop’. 15On the first occasion he had tried to accomplish this, he failed. The officials who had worked for the Provisional Government barred the doors of the old ministry to him. As soon as his entourage forced the locks, there was a mass exodus of personnel and Trotsky discovered that former Deputy Foreign Minister Neratov had made off with the treaties. 16This only temporarily foiled Sovnarkom. Texts of the treaties were discovered and verified, and Trotsky immediately released them for publication on 21 November 1917. 17They confirmed what the Bolsheviks had been saying all year — and indeed the Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries had said the same thing. Now it was proved beyond fear of contradiction: the Allies had entered the war with ambitions of territorial aggrandizement

Every Allied power was assured of benefit if and when the Central Powers were defeated. In March 1915 it had been agreed that Russia would annex Constantinople and northern Persia while Britain and France would acquire spheres of influence in what subsequently became Iraq, Jordan and Syria. The following month Italy was promised the Trentino as well as territory in Anatolia in return for joining the Allied side. In May 1916 the British and French agreed between themselves how to divide up the Middle East. In August that year France, Britain and Russia offered Transylvania and Dobruja to Romania to secure its adherence to the Alliance. Further deals were done in 1917 satisfying demands by the Japanese, British, French and Russians for the post-war settlement. Soviet newspapers were the first to print the treaties. The content was so sensational that the Western press followed suit — and it was Trotsky’s expectation that workers and soldiers throughout Europe would conclude that the war should be stopped at once. And whereas British and French public opinion had been easy to stir up in favour of war in 1914, the American entry into the conflict was always controversial in the US and President Wilson repudiated expansionist aims. Lenin and Trotsky hoped to prise Washington out of the Anglo-French embrace. Wilson had already insisted on being informed about the Allied treaties. His abhorrence of them was instantaneous; and on a visit to Washington the British Foreign Secretary A. J. Balfour had to express regret at the spectacle of European states striving to distribute countries among themselves as the spoils of war. Wilson refused to be bound by treaties made by others before America had joined the war. 18

The question meanwhile arose about what was going to happen in Russia. The decrees streamed thick and fast from Sovnarkom. Workers’ control was approved for industrial enterprises. Universal free education was introduced for children. Church and state were separated. The official calendar was changed from Julian to Gregorian — and many Orthodox Christian believers thought this proved that Lenin or Trotsky was the Antichrist. Religious processions were banned or discouraged. Economic nationalizations were announced. The banks were expropriated. Large industrial concerns were taken into the hands of the revolutionary state — and a further programme of seizures was projected. The entire export and import trade was turned into a state monopoly. Wherever local soviets found the peasantry withholding grain from sale, they dispatched armed workers’ units to take it by force. The People’s Commissariats replaced the old ministries. An entirely new security apparatus, the Extraordinary Commission (Cheka, in its Russian acronym), was established under Felix Dzerzhinski to combat sabotage and counter-revolutionary activity. Lenin deliberately arranged for the Cheka’s operations to lie outside Sovnarkom’s control. Annihilation of resistance to Sovnarkom was the cardinal aim. As they consolidated their power, the Bolsheviks repeated their offer to share power with the Left Socialist- Revolutionaries and a concordat was agreed on 20 December 1917.

All this happened under the grim shadow of war. Sovnarkom had sued for peace on 22 November and dismissed General Dukhonin for refusing to transmit the request to the Germans. The Bolshevik ensign Nikolai Krylenko temporarily took over command. Ludendorff asked General Hoffmann, at the headquarters of the German forces on the eastern front, whether it was possible to negotiate with ‘these people’. Hoffmann said yes. If Ludendorff needed additional troops in northern France, this was the way to get them. 19On 15 December an armistice was agreed along the entire eastern front from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. Both sides prepared for talks to be held a week later.

The Bolsheviks at the same time encouraged Russian front-line troops to fraternize with Germans. While urgently seeking to reduce the likelihood of Germany renewing its offensive, Sovnarkom was eager to expand revolutionary activity. Propaganda was distributed across the trenches to German and Austrian soldiers who were urged to stop fighting and overthrow their governments. Sovnarkom also tried to gain control of Ukraine by sending forces to Kiev against the Central Rada, which had started acting like the government of an independent state after Kerenski’s downfall. Conflict raged between Bolsheviks and the Ukrainian administration throughout the winter. The Bolsheviks saw no absolute distinction between internal and external policy. In December 1917 Lenin summoned Finnish ministers to Petrograd and granted independence to their country. The Finns were less than enthusiastic since they worried that any collusion with Sovnarkom would be held against them by the Western Allies. But they acceded to the Soviet offer and returned to Helsinki to celebrate. The Bolsheviks calculated that if the Finns became independent they would cease to mistrust the Russians — and eventually they would acquire a far-left government that would align itself with Sovnarkom. Finland would come back to Russia.