Kisari Mohan Ganguli - The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa

"Uma said, 'O holy one, my doubts have not been dispelled. It behoveth thee to explain in detail what the duties are of the four respective orders of men.'

"Maheswara said, 'Listening to the mysteries of religion and duty, observance of the vows indicated in the Vedas, attention to the sacred fire, and accomplishment of the business of the preceptor, leading a mendicant life, always bearing the sacred thread, constant recitation of the Vedas, and rigid observance of the duties of Brahmacharya, are the duties of the Brahmana. After the period of study is over, the Brahmana, receiving the command of his preceptor, should leave his preceptor's abode for returning to his father's house. Upon his return he should duly wed a wife that is fit for him. Another duty of the Brahmana consists in avoiding the food prepared by the Sudra. Walking along the path of righteousness, always observing fasts and the practices of Brahmacharya, are his other duties.[561] The householder should keep up his domestic fire for daily worship. He should study the Vedas. He should pour libations in honour of the Pitris and the deities. He should keep his senses under proper control. He should eat what remains after serving gods and guests and all his dependants. He should be abstemious in food, truthful in speech, and pure both externally and internally. Attending to guests is another duty of the householder, as also the keeping up of the three sacrificial fires. The householder should also attend to the ordinary sacrifices that go by the name of Ishti and should also dedicate animals to the deities according to the ordinances. Indeed, the performance of sacrifices is his highest duty as also a complete abstention from injury to all creatures. Never to eat before serving the deities and guests and dependants is another duty of the householder. The food that remains after serving gods and guests and dependants is called Vighasa. The householder should eat Vighasa. Indeed, to eat after the members of one's family including servants and other dependants, is regarded as one of the special duties of the regenerate householder, who should, be conversant with the Vedas. The conduct of husband and wife, in the case of householder, should be equal. He should every day make offerings of flowers and other articles unto those deities that preside over domesticity. The householder should take care that his house is every day properly rubbed (with cowdung and water). He should also observe fasts every day. Well-cleaned and well-rubbed, his house should also be every day fumigated with the smoke of clarified butter poured on his sacred fire in honour of the deities and the Pitris. Even these are the duties appertaining to the householder's mode of life as observable by a regenerate person. Those duties really uphold the world. Verily, those duties always and eternally flow from those righteous persons among the Brahmanas that lead a life of domesticity. Do thou listen to me with concentrated attention, O goddess, for I shall now tell thee what the duties are which appertain to the Kshatriya and about which thou hast asked me. From the beginning it has been said that the duty of the Kshatriya is to protect all creatures. The king is the acquirer of a fixed share of the merits earned by his subjects. By that means the king becomes endued with righteousness. That ruler of men who rules and protects his subjects righteously, acquires, by virtue of the protection he offers to others, many regions of felicity in the world to come. The other duties of a person of the kingly order consist of self-restraint and Vedic study, the pouring of libations on the sacred fire, the making of gifts, study, the bearing of the sacred thread, sacrifices, the performance of religious rites, the support of servants and dependants, and perseverance in acts that have been begun. Another duty of his is to award punishments according to the offences committed. It is also his duty to perform sacrifices and other religious rites according to the ordinances laid down in the Vedas. Adherence to the practice of properly judging the disputes of litigants before him, and a devotion to truthfulness of speech, and interference for aiding the distressed, are the other duties by discharging which the king acquires great glory both here and hereafter. He should also lay down his life on the field of battle, having displayed great prowess on behalf of kine and Brahmanas. Such a king acquires in Heaven such regions of felicity as are capable of being won by the performance of Horse-sacrifices. The duties of the Vaisya always consist of the keeping of cattle and agriculture, the pouring of libations on the sacred fire, the making of gifts, and study. Trade, walking in the path of righteousness, hospitality, peacefulness, self-restraint, welcoming of Brahmanas, and renouncing things (in favour of Brahmanas), are the other eternal duties of the Vaisya. The Vaisya, engaged in trade and walking in the path of righteousness, should never sell sesame and perfumery and juices or liquid substances. He should discharge the duties of hospitality towards all. He is at liberty to pursue religion and wealth and pleasure according to his means and as much as is judicious for him. The service of the three regenerate classes constitutes the high duty of the Sudra. That Sudra who is truthful in speech and who has subdued his senses is regarded as having acquired meritorious penances. Verily, the Sudra, who having got a guest, discharges the duties of hospitality towards him, is regarded as acquiring the merit of high penances. That intelligent Sudra whose conduct is righteous and who worships the deities and Brahmanas, becomes endued with the desirable rewards of righteousness. O beautiful lady, I have thus recited to thee what the duties are of the four orders. Indeed, O blessed lady, I have told thee what their respective duties are. What else dost thou wish to hear?'

"Uma said, 'Thou has recited to me what the respective duties are of the four orders, auspicious and beneficial for them. Do thou now tell me, O holy one, what the common duties are of all the orders.'

"Maheswara said, 'The foremost of all beings in the universe viz., the Creator Brahma, ever desirous of righteous accomplishments, created the Brahmanas for rescuing all the worlds. Among all created beings, they are, verily, gods on earth. I shall at the outset tell thee what the religious acts are which they should do and what the rewards are which they win through them. That religion which has been ordained for the Brahmanas is the foremost of all religions. For the sake of the righteousness of the world, three religions were created by the Self-born One. Whenever the world is created (or re-created), those religions are created by the Grandsire. Do thou listen. These are the three eternal religions. The religion that is propounded in the Vedas is the highest; that which is propounded in the Smritis is the next in the order of importance; the third in importance is that which is based upon the practices of those who are regarded as righteous. The Brahmans possessed of learning should have the three Vedas. He should never make the study of the Vedas (or recitation of the scriptures) the means of his living.[562] He should devote himself to the three well-known acts (of making gifts, studying the Vedas, and performing sacrifices). He should transcend' the three (viz., lust, wrath, and covetousness). He should be the friend of all creatures. A person that possesses these attributes is called a Brahmans. The lord of the universe declared these six acts for the observance of Brahmanas. Listen to those eternal duties. The performance of sacrifices, officiating at the sacrifices of others, the making of gifts, the acceptance of gifts, teaching, and study, are the six acts by accomplishing which a Brahmans wins religious merit. Verily, the daily study of the Vedas is a duty. Sacrifice is (another) eternal duty. The making of gifts according to the measure of his power and agreeable to the ordinance, is, in his case, much applauded. Tranquillity of mind is a high duty that has always been current among them that are righteous. Householders of pure mind are capable of earning very great merit. Indeed, he who cleanses his soul by the performance of the five sacrifices, who is truthful in speech, who is free from malice, who makes gifts, who treats with hospitality and honour all regenerate guests, who lives in well-cleaned abodes, who is free from pride, who is always sincere in his dealings, who uses sweet and assuring words towards others, who takes pleasure in serving guests and others arrived at his abode, and who eats the food that remains after the requirements have been gratified of all the members of his family and dependants, wins great merit. That man who offers water to his guests for washing their feet and hands, who presents the Arghya for honouring the recipient, who duly gives seats, and beds, and lamps for lighting the darkness, and shelter to those that come to his abode, is regarded as highly righteous. That householder who rises at dawn and washes his mouth and 'face and serves food to his guests, and having honoured them duly dismisses them from his abode and follows them (as a mark of honour) for a little distance, acquires eternal merit. Hospitality towards all, and the pursuit of the aggregate of three, are the duties of the householder. The duties of the Sudra consist in the pursuit of the aggregate of three. The Religion ordained for the householder is said to have Pravritti for its chief indication. Auspicious, and beneficial to all creatures, I shall expound it to thee. The householder should always make gifts according to the measure of his power. He should also perform sacrifices frequently after the same manner. Indeed, he who wishes to achieve his own good should always achieve meritorious acts. The householder, should acquire wealth by righteous means. The wealth thus acquired should be carefully divided into three portions, keeping the requirements of righteousness in view. With one of those portions he should accomplish all acts of righteousness. With another he should seek to gratify his cravings for pleasure. The third portion he should lay out for increasing. The Religion of Nivritti is different. It exists for emancipation (from re-birth by absorption into Brahman). I shall tell thee the conduct that constitutes it. Listen to me in detail, O goddess. One of the duties inculcated by that religion is compassion towards all creatures. The man that follows it should not reside in one place for more than one day. Desirous of achieving emancipation, the followers of this Religion free themselves from the bonds of hope (or desire). They have no attachment to habitation, to the Kamandalu they bear for keeping water, to the robes that cover their loins, or the seat whereupon they rest, or the triple stick they bear in their hands, or the bed they sleep on, or the fire they want, or the chamber that houses them. A follower of this Religion sets his heart upon the workings of his soul. His mind is devoted to Supreme Brahman. He is filled with the idea of attaining to Brahman. He is always devoted to Yoga and the Sankhya Philosophy. He desires no other shelter than the foot of a tree. He houses himself in empty abodes of men. He sleeps on the banks of rivers. He takes pleasure in staying by such banks. He is freed from every attachment, and from every tie of affection. He merges the existence of his own soul into the Supreme Soul. Standing like a stake of wood, and abstaining from all food he does only such acts as point to Emancipation. Or, he may wander about, devoted to Yoga. Even these are the eternal duties of a follower of the Religion of Nivritti. He lives aloof from his species. He is freed from all attachments. He never resides in the same place for more than a day. Freed from all bonds he roves over the world. Emancipated from all ties, he never sleeps on even the same river-bank for more than a day. Even this is the religion of persons conversant with Emancipation as declared in the Vedas. Even this is the righteous path that is trodden by the righteous. He who follows in this track leaves no vestige behind. Bhikshus (or followers of the religion of Emancipation) are of four kinds. They are Kutichakas, Vahudakas, Hansas, and Paramahansas. The second is superior to the first, the third to the second, and the fourth to the third. There is nothing superior to the Paramahansa; nor is there anything inferior to it or beside it or before it. It is a condition that is divested of sorrow and happiness; that is auspicious and freed from decrepitude and death and that knows no change.'[563]