Janine Wedel - Collision and Collusion - The Strange Case of Western Aid to Eastern Europe

  35. For details, see, United States Attorney District of Massachusetts, “United States Sues Harvard and Others for False Claims Relating to USAID Programs in Russia,” Press Release, U.S. Department of Justice, September 26, 2000.

  36. Interview aired on Monitor Radio, May 22, 1997.

  37. “Clique” appears to better convey the character of the Chubais group than other terms in the lexicon of informal organization and social networks. The clique is, of course, constituted of networks, and its members exchange with one another. But the clique is much more than a collection of networks. Networks that make up the clique are “dense” in that members of a person’s network are in touch with one another independently of that person; each member of the clique is linked to every other member. Also, networks in the clique are “multiplex” (rather than “single stranded”), in that clique members are connected to one another for multiple purposes, often political, economic, and social. This feature of operating in many spheres—not only political—shows that cliques cannot be reduced to interest groups, factions, or coalitions. In the study of political anthropology, approaches within “action theory,” which concentrates on face-to-face interactions within given sociopolitical contexts, have emphasized the importance of such informal groups as cliques. Also see Dawn Ryan, “Cliques, Factions, and Leadership among the Toaripi of Papua,” Adaptation and Symbolism: Essays on Social Organization, Karen Ann Watson-Gegeo and S. Lee Seaton, eds., Honolulu, HI: East-West Center/University Press of Hawaii, 1978, p. 41.

  38. Olga Kryshtanovskaya, “The Real Masters of Russia,” Argumenty i Fakty, no. 21, May 1997, reprinted in Johnson’s Russia List.

  39. For detailed discussion of the backgrounds of the university’s students and how the university was run, see David H. Lempert, Daily Life in a Crumbling Empire: The Absorption of Russia into the World Economy, vol. 1, book 2, Life in a Russian and Soviet Institution: “The School for Useless Things,” Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, New York, 1996.

  40. Documents and conversations with Russian sources, including Leonid Bazilevich, on May 23, May 27, June 14, and August 7, 1996.

  41. Interviews with Leonid Bazilevich, June 14 and August 7, 1996.

  42. Conversations with Leonid Bazilevich on May 23 and 27 and June 14, 1996; and Robert W. Orttung, From Leningrad to St. Petersburg: Democratization in a Russian City, New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1995, p. 201.

  43. Robert W. Orttung, From Leningrad to St. Petersburg: Democratization in a Russian City, New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1995, p. 201.

  44. Kudrin currently serves as deputy finance minister in President Vladimir Putin’s government.

  45. In an apparent contract killing, Manevich was assassinated in August 1997. At the time, he was deputy governor of St. Petersburg and head of the State Property Committee.

  46. Alfred Kokh later served as deputy chairman of the board of the Chubais-Harvard transactor-run Russian Privatization Center and also as chairman of the State Property Committee (GKI).

  47. Interview with Andrei Shleifer, September 5, 1996.

  48. Jeremy Boissevain, Friends of Friends: Networks, Manipulators and Coalitions, Oxford, United Kingdom: Basil Blackwell, 1974, p. 177; and Dawn Ryan, “Cliques, Factions, and Leadership among the Toaripi of Papua,” Adaptation and Symbolism: Essays on Social Organization, Karen Ann Watson-Gegeo and S. Lee Seaton, eds., Honolulu, HI: East-West Center/University Press of Hawaii, 1978, p. 41.

  49. Dawn Ryan, “Cliques, Factions, and Leadership among the Toaripi of Papua,” Adaptation and Symbolism: Essays on Social Organization, Karen Ann Watson-Gegeo and S. Lee Seaton, eds., Honolulu, HI: East-West Center/University Press of Hawaii, 1978, p. 41.

  50. Interview with Leonid Bazilevich, August 7, 1996.

  51. This is a different unit of economic analysis and decision making from what is usually considered. Although individuals are often thought of as the primary units to take advantage of economic opportunities, in the environments in which the transactors operate, the unit of analysis of responses to economic incentives is not necessarily the individual; it is often the transactor group. Individual players must take the interests of their fellow transactors into account when making choices.

  52.  Frontline “Return of the Czar” interview with Donald Jensen, PBS website www.pbs.org\wgbh\pages\frontline\shows\yeltsin\interviews\jensen.html.

  53. Interview with Thomas A. Dine, August 16, 1996.

  54. Ibid.

  55. For the definitive history of Russian reform efforts, see Lynn D. Nelson and Irina Y. Kuzes, Property to the People: The Struggle for Radical Economic Reform in Russia, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994 and their Radical Reform in Yeltsin’s Russia: Political, Economic and Social Dimensions Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1995.

  56. Letter to Janine R. Wedel from Vladimir Titov, chief of staff to Aleksandr Lebed in the State Duma, August 28, 1996.

  57. Peter J. Stavrakis, “Bull in a China Shop: USAID’s Post-Soviet Mission,” Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization, vol. 4, no. 2, Spring 1996, p. 16.

  58. Thomas E. Graham, “Russia’s New Non-Democrats,” Harper’s Magazine, vol. 292, no. 1751, April 1996, p. 26.

  59. See, for example, John W. R. Lepingwell, “The Soviet Legacy and Russian Foreign Policy,” RFE/RL Research Report, vol.3, 1994, pp. 1-8.

  60. For details, see Lynn D. Nelson and Irina Y. Kuzes, Property to the People: The Struggle for Radical Economic Reform in Russia, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1994, pp. 26-56.

  61. Interview with Walter Coles, June 5, 1996; figure verified at Coles’s request by Deirdre Clifford, July 24, 1996.

  62. Interview with Deirdre Clifford of USAID, June 11, 1996.

  63. Figures provided by Deirdre Clifford, June 11, 1996.

  64. Project documents submitted by Jeffrey D. Sachs and Associates Inc. to the Finnish government: “World Institute for Development Economic Research Project on the Transformation of Centrally Planned Economies: Report on Activities, First Half of 1991,” pp. 4 and 7.

  65. Ibid., p. 2.

  66. Interview with Deirdre Clifford, June 11, 1996.

  67. U.S. Department of State, U.S. Government Assistance to and Cooperative Activities with the New Independent States of the Former Soviet Union: FY 1995 Annual Report, prepared by the Office of the Coordinator of U.S. Assistance to the NIS, April 1996, p. 54.

  68. Lynn D. Nelson and Irina Y. Kuzes, Radical Reform in Yeltsin’s Russia: Political, Economic, and Social Dimensions, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995, pp. 50-51.

  69. See, for example, Lynn D. Nelson and Irina Y. Kuzes, Property to the People: The Struggle for Radical Economic Reform in Russia, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1994, pp. 70-74.

  70. James R. Millar, “From Utopian Socialism to Utopian Capitalism: The Failure of Revolution and Reform in Post-Soviet Russia,” Washington, D.C.: George Washington University 175th Anniversary Papers, paper 2, 1996, p. 8.

  71. For details, see Lynn D. Nelson and Irina Y. Kuzes, Property to the People: The Struggle for Radical Economic Reform in Russia, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994, and their Radical Reform in Yeltsin’s Russia: Political, Economic and Social Dimensions, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1995; Stefan Hedlund, Russia’s “Market” Economy: A Bad Case of Predatory Capitalism, London, United Kingdom: UCL Press Limited, 1999; Fritz W. Ermarth, “Seeing Russia Plain: The Russian Crisis and American Intelligence,” The National Interest, Spring 1999, pp. 5-14; and “Whither Reform” speech by World Bank chief economist Joseph Stiglitz, worldbank.org/knowledge/chiefecon/; Matt Bivens and Jonas Bernstein, “The Russia You Never Met,” Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization, vol. 6., no. 4, Fall 1998, pp. 613-647; and Anne Williamson, Contagion: The Betrayal of Liberty–Russia and the United States in the 1990s, forthcoming, chapter 8.