Michael Butter - The Nature of Conspiracy Theories

1 Title page The Nature of Conspiracy Theories Michael Butter Translated by Sharon Howe polity

2 Copyright page

3 Acknowledgements

4 Introduction, or: What’s the plan? Notes

5 1 ‘Everything is planned’, or: What is a conspiracy theory? Characteristics Typologies Conspiracy theories and real conspiracies The term as a means of delegitimization Conspiracy theories as theories Notes

6 2 ‘Nothing is as it seems’, or: How do conspiracy theorists argue? Structure and strategies of argumentation Evidence Countering the official version Case study: Daniele Ganser Metaphors and more Notes

7 3 ‘Everything is connected’, or: Why do people believe in conspiracy theories? Functions Are conspiracy theories for losers? Propaganda and commerce Case study: Alex Jones Notes

8 4 The story so far, or: How have conspiracy theories evolved historically? Emergence and development up to the twentieth century Delegitimization and stigmatization after 1945 Case study: the myth of the global Jewish conspiracy Conspiracy theories and populism Notes

9 5 Current trends, or: How is the internet changing conspiracy theories? The ‘truth’ is just a Google search away Relegitimization in the echo chamber From conspiracy theories to conspiracy rumours Case study: Donald Trump Notes

10 Conclusion: When are conspiracy theories dangerous and what can we do about them? Notes

11 Index

12 End User License Agreement

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Michael Butter

Translated by Sharon Howe

polity

Originally published in German as ‘ Nichts ist, wie es scheint’: Über Verschwörungstheorien © Suhrkamp Verlag Berlin 2018. All rights reserved by and controlled through Suhrkamp Verlag Berlin

This English edition © 2020 by Polity Press

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All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

ISBN-13: 978-1-5095-4081-5

ISBN-13: 978-1-5095-4082-2 (paperback)

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Butter, Michael, author.

Title: The nature of conspiracy theories / Michael Butter ; translated by Sharon Howe.

Other titles: “Nichts ist, wie es scheint”. English

Description: Cambridge, UK ; Medford, MA : Polity Press, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “A comprehensive introduction to conspiracy theories and their growing presence in the age of the internet”-- Provided by publisher.

Identifiers: LCCN 2020008369 (print) | LCCN 2020008370 (ebook) | ISBN 9781509540815 (hardback) | ISBN 9781509540822 (paperback) | ISBN 9781509540839 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Conspiracy theories. | History--Errors, inventions, etc.

Classification: LCC HV6275 .B8813 2020 (print) | LCC HV6275 (ebook) | DDC 001.9--dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020008369

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020008370

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Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Limited

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It is a great pleasure to thank the many people who ‘conspired’ with me on this project in manifold ways over the past years. Daniel Graf planted the idea for this book in my mind many years ago and finally made me pursue it. Elise Heslinga and John Thompson at Polity were a pleasure to work with. So were Heinrich Geiselberger and Nora Mercurio at Suhrkamp, which published the original German version in 2018. Special thanks are due to Sharon Howe for not getting lost in my overly long German sentences while translating the book. That I felt that I had something to say at all is mostly due to the impact of a number of wonderful colleagues who shared their ideas with me over the years. I am thinking in particular of the members of the COST Action ‘Comparative Analysis of Conspiracy Theories’, many of whom have become good friends over the past years. I am especially indebted to Peter Knight, Andrew McKenzie-McHarg and Claus Oberhauser. I would also like to acknowledge the impact that Andreas Anton has had on my thoughts about conspiracy theories. I mention him only in one endnote (and completely forgot to mention him in the German edition), but his take on conspiracy theories as a form of knowledge had a lasting effect on me. Finally, I would like to thank my research assistants Alexandra Dempe and Hannah Herrera for tracking down references, formatting endnotes and bearing with me when I decided to change something once again.