Allen Hunt - Hydrogeology, Chemical Weathering, and Soil Formation

1 Cover

2 Title Page Geophysical Monograph 257

3 Copyright Page

4 DEDICATION

5 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

6 PREFACE REFERENCES

7 Part I: Soil Definition 1 Soil as a System: A History 1.1. INTRODUCTION 1.2. SOIL AS AN INDEPENDENT BODY 1.3. SOIL AS A SYSTEM 1.4. SOIL AS A SPATIAL SYSTEM 1.5. SOIL AS AN INTERDEPENDENT SYSTEM 1.6. PROSPECT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

8 Part II: Soil History 2 Soils, Chemical Weathering, and Climate Change in Earth History 2.1. INTRODUCTION 2.2. PRECAMBRIAN EON (4.55–0.54 GA) 2.3. PHANEROZOIC EON (540 MA TO PRESENT) 2.4. MESOZOIC 2.5. CENOZOIC 2.6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

9 Part III: Soil Formation Processes 3 Soil Formation, Vegetation Growth, and Water Balance: A Theory for Budyko: A Theory for Budyko 3.1. INTRODUCTION 3.2. HYPOTHESIS 3.3. THEORETICAL APPROACH AND STEADY‐STATE RESTRICTIONS 3.4. COMPARISONS WITH DATA 3.5. DISCUSSION AND POTENTIAL STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVEMENT 3.6. CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 4 Earthworms, Plants, and Soils 4.1. PLANTS AND EARTHWORMS ARE ECOSYSTEM ENGINEERS 4.2. PLANTS AND EARTHWORMS ARE IMPLIED IN SOIL FORMATION 4.3. PLANTS AND EARTHWORMS CONTRIBUTE TO SOIL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 4.4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS REFERENCES 5 Tephra for the Trees? Geochemical Constraints on Weathering and Tephra Inputs to Soils on New Zealand’s North Island 5.1. INTRODUCTION 5.2. FIELD SITE 5.3. METHODS 5.4. RESULTS 5.5. FORWARD MODEL AND MODEL RESULTS 5.6. DISCUSSION 5.7. CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 6 The Origin and Formation of Clay Minerals in Alpine Soils 6.1. THE ORIGIN OF CLAYS IN SOILS 6.2. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND CLAY FORMATION 6.3. CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES

10 Part IV: Application of Chemical Weathering/Soil Formation in Other Disciplines 7 Weathering Rinds as Tools for Constraining Reaction Kinetics and Duration of Weathering at the Clast‐Scale 7.1. INTRODUCTION 7.2. WEATHERING RINDS AS TOOLS FOR CALIBRATED AGE DATING 7.3. CASE STUDIES 7.4. VARIABLES INFLUENCING WEATHERING RIND THICKNESS 7.5. THE CORE‐RIND BOUNDARY AND INCIPIENT CHEMICAL WEATHERING 7.6. CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGIC PROPERTIES 7.7. PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ACROSS THE CORE‐RIND BOUNDARY 7.8. DIFFUSION MODEL OF WEATHERING RIND DEVELOPMENT 7.9. QUANTIFYING THE DURATION OF WEATHERING 7.10. WEATHERING ADVANCE RATES ACROSS PRECIPITATION GRADIENTS 7.11. SUMMARY POINTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 8 Unraveling Loess Records of Climate Change from the Chinese Loess Plateau Using Process‐Based Models 8.1. INTRODUCTION 8.2. GLOBAL‐CHANGE RESPONSIVE MODELS OF SOIL FORMATION 8.3. SOILGEN‐LOVECLIM: A SUITABLE COMBINATION FOR GLOBAL CHANGE STUDIES IN LOESS SOILS 8.4. ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES REFERENCES 9 Relations Between Soil Development and Landslides 9.1. INTRODUCTION 9.2. HOW SOILS INCREASE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO LANDSLIDES 9.3. SOIL DEVELOPMENT 9.4. HOW LANDSLIDES AFFECT SOIL DEVELOPMENT 9.5. SOIL‐LANDSLIDE FEEDBACKS AND LANDSLIDE PATH‐DEPENDENCE 9.6. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES 10A Soils in Agricultural Engineering: Effect of Land‐Use Management Systems on Mechanical Soil Processes 10A.1. INTRODUCTION 10A.2. MECHANICAL PROCESSES IN SOILS 10A.3. EFFECT OF STRESS APPLICATION ON CHANGES IN ECOLOGICAL SOIL FUNCTIONS 10A.4. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES 10B Soil Strength and Carbon Sequestration 10B.1. INTRODUCTION 10B.2. PROCESSES OF SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION 10B.3. SEQUESTRATION OF SOIL INORGANIC CARBON 10B.4. RESTORING SOIL PROPERTIES THROUGH ECO‐EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT 10B.5. TECHNICAL AND ACTUAL RATE OF SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION 10B.6. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS OF THE UNITED NATIONS 10B.7. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

11 Part V: Integrated Studies of Soils 11 Chemical Weathering in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica 11.1. INTRODUCTION 11.2. STUDY AREA 11.3. FLUVIAL EROSION/DENUDATION 11.4. SOILS 11.5. SHALLOW GROUNDWATER SEEPS AND WATER TRACKS 11.6. STREAMS 11.7. WEATHERING PROCESSES 11.8. IMPLICATIONS OF MELTING BURIED ICE 11.9. CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 12 Carbon and Nutrient Fluxes Within Southeastern Piedmont Critical Zones 12.1. INTRODUCTION 12.2. METHODS 12.3. RESULTS 12.4. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES 13 Is This Steady State? Weathering and Critical Zone Architecture in Gordon Gulch, Colorado Front Range 13.1. INTRODUCTION 13.2. STUDY LOCATION 13.3. CRITICAL ZONE ARCHITECTURE 13.4. DISCUSSION 13.5. SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 14 Where Are We and Where Are We Going? Pedogenesis Through Chemical Weathering, Hydrologic Fluxes, and Bioturbation 14.1. WHAT AND WHERE IS SOIL PHYSICALLY, HYDROLOGICALLY, CHEMICALLY, BIOLOGICALLY, CONCEPTUALLY, AND SCIENTIFICALLY? 14.2. SOIL‐FORMING FACTORS AND SOIL PRODUCTION; CONNECTIONS WITH GEOMORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY 14.3. HUMAN IMPACTS AND RELEVANCE TO HUMAN SOCIETY 14.4. WHERE IS SOIL AS A DISCIPLINE? 14.5. RESEARCH DIRECTIONS, NETWORKS, AND FOUNDATIONAL SUPPORT: CURRENT AND FUTURE 14.6. WAYS FORWARD REFERENCES

12 INDEX

13 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 1 Table 1.1 Soil models with selected examples.

2 Chapter 2 Table 2.1 Summary properties of modern soil orders. Table 2.2 Paleosol orders, associated properties, and equivalents to the U.S....

3 Chapter 5Table 5.1 Cosmogenic nuclides. Brackets denote concentrations.Table 5.2 Bedrock geochemistry.Table 5.3 Saprolite and soil geochemistry measured by neutron activation anal...

4 Chapter 7Table 7.1 Empirical models for rind development as a function of time.Table 7.2 Pedogenic properties and isotopic age constraints of Costa Rican ch...

5 Chapter 8Table 8.1 Key processes and model outputs of soil evolution models for paleos...Table 8.2 Forcing (or soil forming) factors, associated soil model boundary i...Table 8.3 Mineralogical composition and texture of parent material and deposi...Table 8.4 Results of paired t ‐test on difference between MIS 13 and MIS 5e of ...

6 Chapter 11Table 11.1 Mean values of titration alkalinity and H 4SiO 4for McMurdo Dry Val...

7 Chapter 12Table 12.1 Calhoun CZO total and inorganic phosphorous concentrations in soil...Table 12.2 Calhoun CZO dissolved organic carbon in soil solutions collected f...Table 12.3 Calhoun CZO stream inorganic phosphorous concentrations collected ...Table 12.4 Lake Lanier water‐quality data for 10 tributaries and 18 lake site...Table 12.5 Lake Lanier and tributary mass ratios (g/kg) between selected nutr...

8 Chapter 13Table 13.1 Summary of mineralogy from soil pits, cores from tors, and from mo...Table 13.2 Summary of core recovery and tensile failure stress from drilling ...Table 13.3 Comparison of modern dissolved fluxes and long‐term CRN‐based tota...

1 Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 The soil system. Figure 1.2 Terrestrial spheres and their interaction as envisioned by Sante ... Figure 1.3 A schema for the terrestrial spheres: their interactions and exte... Figure 1.4 Research areas straddling the pedosphere and individual component...

2 Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Changes in climate, organisms, and atmospheric chemistry importan... Figure 2.2 Changes in climate, organisms, and atmospheric chemistry importan... Figure 2.3 Geologic timescale for the Mesozoic in association with relative ... Figure 2.4 Changes in climate, organisms, and atmospheric chemistry importan... Figure 2.5 Changes in climate, organisms, and atmospheric chemistry importan...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Plot of data compiled by Gentine et al. (2012) for ET /P as a func...Figure 3.2 Dependence of net primary productivity, NPP , on precipitation, P ,...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Ecological categories of earthworms. (a) Epigeic species, Lumbric ...Figure 4.2 Two different root systems. (a) Well‐branched roots of Lolium sp ....Figure 4.3 Surface‐casts of anecic earthworms. (a) Different colors of struc...Figure 4.4 Burrows of anecic earthworms. (a) Burrow openings of anecic earth...Figure 4.5 Tree uprooted following a wind event two years ago. Soil (Cambiso...