Sarcopenia

1 Cover

2 Title Page Sarcopenia Second Edition Edited by Alfonso J. Cruz‐Jentoft Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal Madrid, Spain and John E. Morley St. Louis University School of Medicine St. Louis, USA

3 Copyright Page

4 List of Contributors

5 Preface

6 CHAPTER 1: Definitions of Sarcopenia SARCOPENIA: BIRTH AND FIRST STEPS GROWTH AND ADOLESCENCE OF SARCOPENIA MATURITY OF SARCOPENIA: RECENT DEFINITIONS NEW PLAYERS: BONE, FAT, AND MUSCLE THE FRONTIERS: FRAILTY, CACHEXIA, MALNUTRITION THE RESEARCH ARENA SUMMARY REFERENCES

7 CHAPTER 2: Epidemiology of Muscle Mass Loss with Age INTRODUCTION MUSCLE MASS DIFFERENCES AMONG AGE GROUPS CHANGE IN MUSCLE MASS WITH AGING REFERENCES

8 CHAPTER 3: The Role of Mitochondria in Age‐Related Sarcopenia MUSCLES TRANSFORM CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY EVIDENCE THAT MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION DECLINES WITH AGING AND ITS CONSEQUENCES ON MUSCLE HEALTH AND FUNCTION CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF MITOCHONDRIAL MASS AND OXIDATIVE CAPACITY IN AGING SKELETAL MUSCLE ARE AGE‐RELATED CHANGES IN MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION AT THE ROOT OF SARCOPENIA? ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

9 CHAPTER 4: Motor Unit Remodeling OVERVIEW OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM AGE‐RELATED MU REMODELING LOSS OF MUSCLE FIBERS REDUCED FIRING CAPACITY OF MUs MECHANISMS OF MU REMODELING FUTURE DIRECTIONS CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

10 CHAPTER 5: Nutrition, Protein Turnover and Muscle Mass INTRODUCTION EVIDENCES FOR A ROLE FOR NUTRITION IN SARCOPENIA ANABOLIC RESPONSE TO PHYSICAL EXERCISE IN OLDER PERSONS COMBINATION OF NUTRITIONAL AND TRAINING STRATEGIES CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE DIRECTION REFERENCES

11 CHAPTER 6: Recognizing Persons at Risk for Sarcopenia SARC‐F OTHER SCREENING TESTS FOR SARCOPENIA CONCLUSION DISCLOSURES REFERENCES

12 CHAPTER 7: Adverse Outcomes and Functional Consequences of Sarcopenia INTRODUCTION MORTALITY MOBILITY LIMITATIONS FALLS AND FRACTURES QUALITY OF LIFE METABOLIC CONSEQUENCES SECONDARY SARCOPENIA CONTROVERSIES CONCLUSION REFERENCES

13 CHAPTER 8: A Lifecourse Approach to Sarcopenia INTRODUCTION A LIFECOURSE APPROACH USE OF COHORT STUDIES ACROSS THE LIFECOURSE LIFECOURSE CONSEQUENCES OF SARCOPENIA LIFECOURSE DETERMINANTS OF SARCOPENIA CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE REFERENCES

14 CHAPTER 9: Acute Sarcopenia DEFINITION EPIDEMIOLOGY PATHOGENESIS OUTCOMES TREATMENT CONCLUSION REFERENCES

15 CHAPTER 10: Sarcopenia, Frailty, and Intrinsic Capacity INTRODUCING THE FRAILTY CONCEPT THE PHYSICAL PHENOTYPE ACCORDING TO FRIED AND THE DEFICIT MODEL ACCORDING TO ROCKWOOD SARCOPENIA AND FRAILTY – OVERLAP AND DIFFERENCES THE FUTURE RELEVANCE OF FRAILTY INTRINSIC CAPACITY REFERENCES

16 CHAPTER 11: Osteosarcopenia INTRODUCTION PATHOPHYSIOLOGY EPIDEMIOLOGY CLINICAL ASSESSMENT TREATMENTS SUMMARY REFERENCES

17 CHAPTER 12: Sarcopenic Obesity INTRODUCTION DEFINITION OF SARCOPENIC OBESITY PATHOGENESIS OF SO CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS TREATMENT CONCLUSION REFERENCES

18 CHAPTER 13: Sarcopenia and Cognitive Impairment INTRODUCTION AGING AND COGNITIVE DECLINES PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DECLINES SARCOPENIA AND COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

19 CHAPTER 14: Sarcopenia and Other Chronic Organ Diseases CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE CHRONIC HEART FAILURE DIABETES MELLITUS RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (RA) CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

20 CHAPTER 15: Imaging of Skeletal Muscle INTRODUCTION DUAL X‐RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY CONCLUSION REFERENCES

21 CHAPTER 16: Measurements of Muscle Mass: Equations and Cut‐off Points INTRODUCTION ANTHROPOMETRY – METHOD DESCRIPTION ANTHROPOMETRY – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE – METHOD DESCRIPTION BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH DXA – METHOD DESCRIPTION DXA – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH CT AND MRI – METHOD DESCRIPTION CT AND MRI – CUT‐OFF POINTS IN SARCOPENIA RESEARCH EMERGING METHODS OVERVIEW OF METHODS REFERENCES

22 CHAPTER 17: Deuterated Creatine Dilution to Assess Muscle Mass (D3‐Cr Muscle Mass) in Humans: Methods, Early Results, and Future Directions INTRODUCTION METHODS AND OPERATIONAL APPROACH CONSIDERATION OF BODY SIZE IN ANALYSIS OF MUSCLE MASS SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONAL HUMAN STUDIES THAT HAVE IMPLEMENTED THE D3‐Cr DILUTION METHOD NEXT STEPS REFERENCES

23 CHAPTER 18: Measurement of Muscle Strength and Power INTRODUCTION TERMINOLOGY METHODS OF MEASUREMENT REFERENCES

24 CHAPTER 19: Measurements of Physical Performance INTRODUCTION WHAT INFORMATION IS PROVIDED TO A CLINICIAN WHEN ADOPTING PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE MEASURES? SARCOPENIA AND PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE MEASURES OF PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

25 CHAPTER 20: Biomarkers for Physical Frailty and Sarcopenia: A “Two‐Body Problem” INTRODUCTION BIOMARKERS FOR PHYSICAL FRAILTY AND SARCOPENIA: WHERE DO WE STAND? MULTI‐MARKER RESEARCH STRATEGIES: MOVING THE FIELD FORWARD CONCLUSION REFERENCES

26 CHAPTER 21: Quality of Life and Sarcopenia INTRODUCTION LITERATURE REVIEW OF QOL AND SARCOPENIA THE SARQOL QUESTIONNAIRE CONCLUSION REFERENCES

27 CHAPTER 22: Exercise Interventions to Prevent and Improve Sarcopenia INTRODUCTION DEFINITION OF TERMS BENEFITS OF PA AND AGING TYPES OF EXERCISE EXERCISE INTERVENTIONS AND SARCOPENIA REFERENCES

28 CHAPTER 23: Nutritional Approaches to Treat Sarcopenia INTRODUCTION – SARCOPENIA ETIOLOGIES AND EFFECT OF NUTRITIONAL INTERVENTION DIETARY PROTEIN INTAKE AND MUSCLE ANABOLISM COMBINING PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION WITH EXERCISE TIMING OF PROTEIN CONSUMPTION OTHER NUTRITIONAL APPROACHES STATE OF THE ART FUTURE PERSPECTIVES REFERENCES

29 CHAPTER 24: Beta‐hydroxy‐beta‐methylbutyrate (HMB) and Sarcopenia INTRODUCTION BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF HMB ON MUSCLE CELLS HMB IN THE DAILY DIET HMB INTERVENTION STUDIES IN OLDER ADULTS AND IN DISEASE CONDITIONS HMB WITH EXERCISE EFFICACY OF HMB IN ATHLETES SAFETY OF HMB HMB IN THE EUROPEAN SOCIETY FOR CLINICAL NUTRITION AND METABOLISM GUIDELINE CONCLUSION REFERENCES

30 CHAPTER 25: The Future of Drug Treatments INTRODUCTION CARDIOVASCULAR DRUGS HORMONE REPLACEMENT METABOLIC AGENTS Β‐HYDROXY Β‐METHYLBUTYRATE OTHER POSSIBLE PHARMACOLOGIC APPROACHES CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

31 CHAPTER 26: Sarcopenia: Is It Preventable? INTRODUCTION AGE‐RELATED CHANGES IN BODY COMPOSITION PREVALENCE OF SARCOPENIA PREVENTION PREVENTION STRATEGY PHYSICAL EXERCISE NUTRITIONAL BASICS QUATERNARY PREVENTION: WARNING AGAINST NON‐EVIDENCE‐BASED INTERVENTIONS REFERENCES

32 27 Financial Impact of Sarcopenia INTRODUCTION DATA FROM COHORT STUDIES: AGE‐ASSOCIATED SARCOPENIA IN COMMUNITY‐DWELLING OLD RETROSPECTIVE DATA FROM SURGICAL SETTINGS ON THE FINANCIAL IMPACT OF LOW MUSCLE MASS FINANCIAL IMPACT OF LOW SKELETAL MUSCLE MASS AND STRENGTH – SARCOPENIA – IN A GENERAL HOSPITAL SETTING CRITICAL DISCUSSION REFERENCES

33 CHAPTER 28: Sarcopenia Management for Clinicians MANAGEMENT OF SARCOPENIA IN CLINICAL PRACTICE IDENTIFYING REVERSIBLE FACTORS CONCLUSION REFERENCES

34 Index

35 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 2 Table 2.1 Characteristics of prospective studies investigating the age‐relate...

2 Chapter 6 Table 6.1 SARC‐F screen for sarcopenia. Table 6.2 Validations of SARC‐F.

3 Chapter 9Table 9.1 Studies that described the incidence and prevalence of acute sarcop...

4 Chapter 10Table 10.1 Criteria for the phenotypic definition of frailty developed by Fri...Table 10.2 List of variables used for the 70‐item Frailty Index by Rockwood e...