Muography

1 Cover

2 Series Page

3 Title PageGeophysical Monograph 270 Exploring Earth's Subsurface with Elementary Particles

4 Copyright Page

5 List of Contributors

6 Preface

7 1 Principles of Muography and Pioneering Works 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 PRINCIPLES OF MUOGRAPHY 1.3 PIONEERING WORKS 1.4 CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

8 Part I: Muographic Image Processing 2 Tomographic Imaging of Volcano Structures with Cosmic‐Ray Muons 2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 LINEAR INVERSION 2.3 FILTERED BACK PROJECTION 2.4 PERFORMANCE ESTIMATION WITH A FORWARD MODELING SIMULATION 2.5 RESULTS 2.6 DISCUSSION 2.7 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES 3 Joint Inversion of Muography and Gravity Data for 3D Density Imaging of Volcanoes 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS 3.3 LINEAR JOINT INVERSION 3.4 MORE EXACT FORMULATION 3.5 DENSITY BIAS 3.6 REGULARIZATION PARAMETERS 3.7 DISCUSSION 3.8 SUMMARY REFERENCES 4 Machine Learning with Muographic Images as Input: An Application to Volcano Eruption Forecasting 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 MUOGRAPHIC OBSERVATION OF THE SAKURAJIMA VOLCANO 4.3 A CONCEPTUALIZATION OF VOLCANO ERUPTION FORECASTING WITH MUOGRAPHY 4.4 MUOGRAPHIC DATA PROCESSING WITH MACHINE LEARNING 4.5 DISCUSSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

9 Part II: Muography for Volcanic Investigations 5 Observation of the Dynamics of Hydrothermal Activity in La Soufrière of Guadeloupe Volcano with Joint Muography, Gravimetry, Electrical Resistivity Tomography, Seismic and Temperature Monitoring 5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.2 MUOGRAPHY FOR VOLCANO APPLICATIONS 5.3 STRUCTURAL IMAGING OF HYDROTHERMAL RESERVOIRS IN LA SOUFRIÈRE LAVA DOME WITH JOINT MUOGRAPHY, ERT, AND GRAVIMETRY 5.4 FUNCTIONAL IMAGING OF SUDDEN HYDROTHERMAL EVENTS WITH JOINT MUOGRAPHY, SEISMIC NOISE, AND FUMAROLE TEMPERATURE 5.5 CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 6 Structure of the Shallow Supply System at Stromboli Volcano, Italy, through Integration of Muography, Digital Elevation Models, Seismicity, and Ground Deformation Data 6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2 ERUPTIVE ACTIVITY, MORPHOLOGY OF THE SHALLOW FEEDER SYSTEM, AND ERUPTION DYNAMICS 6.3 DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES FOR THE CRATER ZONE STUDY 6.4 DISCUSSION 6.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 7 Three Years of Muography at Mount Etna, Italy: Results and Interpretation 7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 THE MEV PROJECT 7.3 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 7.4 IMPROVEMENT OF BACKGROUND REJECTION 7.5 OBSERVATION OF THE COLLAPSE OF NORTHEAST CRATER OF ETNA 7.6 CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES 8 Muography of Magma Intrusion Beneath the Active Craters of Sakurajima Volcano, Japan 8.1 INTRODUCTION 8.2 OBSERVATIONAL INSTRUMENT AND METHODS 8.3 VOLCANOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS 8.4 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 9 Muography of the Volcanic Structure of the Summit of Vesuvius, Italy 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.2 MUOGRAPHY EXPERIMENTS AT VESUVIUS 9.3 EXPECTED RESULTS 9.4 SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

10 Part III: Muography for Environmental Applications 10 Water Resource Management: The Multi‐Technique Approach of the Low Background Noise Underground Research Laboratory and its Muon Detection Projects 10.1 INTRODUCTION 10.2 THE LOW BACKGROUND NOISE UNDERGROUND RESEARCH LABORATORY 10.3 WATER MONITORING AT LSBB 10.4 DETECTION OF COSMIC RAYS AT LSBB 10.5 MUON SURVEY TOMOGRAPHY BASED ON MICROMEGAS DETECTORS FOR UNREACHABLE SITES TECHNOLOGY 10.6 AN EXAMPLE OF MULTI‐TECHNIQUE APPROACH: THE BUISSONNIÈRE EXPERIMENT 10.7 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 11 Exploration of Underground Cave Systems with Muography 11.1. UNDERGROUND CHALLENGE 11.2. LIGHTWEIGHT GASEOUS DETECTORS 11.3. DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS 11.4. REFERENCE AND ROCK DENSITY 11.5. CAVE MUOGRAPHY CAMPAIGNS IN HUNGARY 11.6. TOMOGRAPHY AND INVERSION 11.7. CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 12 Detection and 3D Reconstruction of Cavities Inside Mount Echia, Naples, Italy 12.1. INTRODUCTION 12.2. THE MUON DETECTORS 12.3. MUON TRANSMISSION IN TWO DIMENSIONS 12.4. 3D RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIDDEN CAVITY 12.5. HINTS FROM CONVENTIONAL METHODS 12.6. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 13 Exploration of Hidden Topography Beneath Alpine Glaciers with Muography 13.1. INTRODUCTION 13.2. DETECTORS 13.3. DATA ANALYSIS 13.4. RECONSTRUCTED BEDROCK TOPOGRAPHY 13.5. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES 14 Muography, a Key Technology for Monitoring Carbon Geostorage 14.1. INTRODUCTION 14.2. CARBON GEOSTORAGE MODELING 14.3. MUON FLUX MODELING AND FORECASTS 14.4. INSTRUMENTATION 14.5. OUTLOOK FOR CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE (CCS) 14.6. CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 15 Future Prospects of Muography for Geological Research and Geotechnical and Mining Engineering 15.1. INTRODUCTION 15.2. MUONS, TERMS, AND MUON DETECTORS 15.3. BASICS OF MUOGRAPHY AND WHY IT WORKS IN GEOSCIENCES AND ENGINEERING 15.4. CURRENT AND NEAR‐FUTURE APPLICATIONS IN GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING 15.5. IMPACT ON DRILLING AND GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL RESEARCH 15.6. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS REFERENCES 16 Muon Tomography for Underground Resources 16.1. INTRODUCTION 16.2. GEOPHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS 16.3. CASE STUDIES 16.4. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

11 Part IV: Next Generation Muography 17 Development of Scintillator‐Based Muon Detectors for Muography 17.1. INTRODUCTION 17.2. DETECTING MUONS: DIRECT AND INVERSE PROBLEM 17.3. TECHNOLOGIES: DESIGN AND OPERATION OF SCINTILLATOR‐BASED DETECTORS 17.4. SCINTILLATORS AROUND THE WORLD 17.5. NON‐VOLCANOLOGIC APPLICATIONS: INVESTIGATION ON NUCLEAR REACTORS AND TUNNEL‐BORING MACHINES 17.6. CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES 18 Resistive Plate Chambers in Muography 18.1. INTRODUCTION 18.2. RESISTIVE PLATE CHAMBER BASICS 18.3. RPC APPLICATIONS IN MUOGRAPHY 18.4. TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR GEOSCIENCES USE CASES 18.5. PERFORMANCE GOALS AND CHALLENGES 18.6. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES 19 Development of Multi‐Wire Proportional Chamber‐Based Trackers for Muography 19.1. INTRODUCTION 19.2. MWPC DETECTORS FOR PRACTICAL MUOGRAPHY 19.3. SMALL SIZE AND PORTABLE DETECTORS: CLOSE‐CATHODE CHAMBERS 19.4. MWPC TRACKING SYSTEM 19.5. GAS SUPPLY SYSTEM 19.6. CHALLENGES OF LOW‐MAINTENANCE AND REMOTE OPERATION CONDITIONS 19.7. LOW‐BACKGROUND ENVIRONMENTS AND HIGH DEFINITION IMAGING 19.8. PRACTICAL OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCES 19.9. SUMMARY REFERENCES 20 Development of Micro‐Pattern Gaseous Detectors for Muography 20.1. INTRODUCTION TO MPGD 20.2. HARDWARE DEVELOPMENTS 20.3. GAS STUDIES 20.4. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENTS 20.5. RESULTS 20.6. SUMMARY REFERENCES 21 Development of Nuclear Emulsions for Muography 21.1. INTRODUCTION 21.2. NUCLEAR EMULSION TECHNOLOGY 21.3. MUOGRAPHY WITH NUCLEAR EMULSIONS 21.4. SUMMARY AND PROSPECTS REFERENCES

12 INDEX

13 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 4 Table 4.1 The tuned hyperparameters of convolutional neural network and the...

2 Chapter 7Table 7.1 Maximum of corrected acceptance distribution, computed for every ...Table 7.2 Contribution to TOF module time resolution.Table 7.3 Nominal and effective acquisition time for each of the three data‐...Table 7.4 Event rate for the three measurement campaigns at NEC and the numb...

3 Chapter 8Table 8.1 Summary of the main parameters of the two data collection periods...Table 8.2 The relative density changes (Δ ρ rel) are shown in standar...

4 Chapter 14Table 14.1 Physical parameters used in the numerical model.

5 Chapter 15Table 15.1 Proposed applications for muography as parts of the mine life cyc...

6 Chapter 16Table 16.1 Listing of tools for simulating muon propagation through matter.Table 16.2 Comparison of muon intensity at slant depths of 500, 1,000, and 2...

1 Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Integrated muon flux after passing through rock with a given thic... Figure 1.2 Principle of the muon tracking. The top view (a) and the side vie... Figure 1.3 Photographs of airborne muography. Distant (a) and close‐up (b) v... Figure 1.4 Muographic image of Satsuma‐Iwojima volcano, Japan. The arrow ind... Figure 1.5 Conduit magmatic convection model of Satsuma‐Iwojima volcano. Figure 1.6 Muographic image of Asama volcano, Japan (a) and images before an... Figure 1.7 Density variations of the central southern region of Honshu, Japa... Figure 1.8 Response of the muon flux to rainfall events. (a) The response in...